Contact Us    Contact Us     |     Feedback
MOBILE VIEW  | 

BENTAZON

Export To Excel

Classification   |    Detailed evidence-based information

Substances Included Synonyms

Therapeutic Toxic Class

    A) Bentazon is an unclassified selective contact herbicide of relatively low mammalian toxicity. It is a post-emergence herbicide. Chemically, bentazon is a benzothiadiazine compound, belonging to the tiodiazine family. It is a thermally unstable polar herbicide with an acidic character. Bentazon is a "General Use Pesticide (GUP)" that is classified as toxicity class III - slightly toxic.

Specific Substances

    1) 1H-2,1,3-Benzothiadiazin-4(3H)-one, 3-isopropyl-, 2,2-dioxide
    2) 3-(1-Methylethyl)-1H-2,1,3-benzothiazain-4(3H)-one, 2,2-dioxide
    3) 3-Isopropyl-1H-2,1,3-benzothiadiazin-4(3H)-one-2,2-dioxide
    4) Basagran
    5) Bendioxide
    6) Bentazone
    7) Pentazone
    8) Thiadiazinol
    9) Molecular Formula: C10-H12-N2-O3-S
    10) CAS 25057-89-0
    1.2.1) MOLECULAR FORMULA
    1) C10-H12-N2-O3-S

Available Forms Sources

    A) FORMS
    1) Pure bentazon is a colorless or white to slightly brown, odorless crystalline powder (HSDB, 2003; Budavari, 2001; EXTOXNET, 1996). It is usually supplied as the soluble sodium salt for herbicide use (HSDB, 2003).
    B) SOURCES
    1) Bentazon is produced by the reaction of anthranilic acid with isopropylsulfamoyl chloride to N-(isopropylsulfamoyl) anthranilic acid which is then cyclized with phosgene to make bentazon (HSDB, 2003).
    C) USES
    1) Bentazon is a selective post-emergence heterocyclic nitrogen herbicide used on large seeded legumes and some grass crops for control of annual broadleaf weeds and yellow nutsedge and shoot removal or perennial broadleaf weeds. It controls numerous dicotyledonous weeds and various Cyperaceae. It selectively controls many sedge weeds which grow among soybeans, rice, corn, sorghum, peanuts, beans (dry or succulent), peas (dry or succulent), peppers, established peppermint and spearmint, established ornamental turf, and Bohemian chili peppers. It is a contact herbicide and inhibits photosynthesis in the target plant (HSDB, 2003; Budavari, 2001; Ashford, 1994; Huber & Otto, 1994).
    2) Application rates range from 0.75 lb active ingredient (a.i.)/acre to 2 lbs a.i./acre. These rates vary by crop geographic region, target species, and site conditions (EPA, 1988).
    3) EPA (1994) reports that bentazon may be applied either aerially or using ground equipment.
    4) The effectiveness of this compound increases with temperature, and rain within eight hours of application will reduce its effectiveness (EXTOXNET, 1996).

Overview

Life Support

    A) This overview assumes that basic life support measures have been instituted.

Clinical Effects

    0.2.1) SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Bentazon is a polar, acidic herbicide belonging to the tiodiazine family. It is moderately toxic by skin contact and ingestion. It is moderately irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes. Ingestion may result in nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dyspnea, tremors, weakness, and CNS depression. Human poisoning mimicking neuroleptic malignant syndrome has been reported. Onset of symptoms may occur within 30 minutes of ingestion.
    2) Bentazon herbicides are generally formulated as aqueous solutions. Thus, toxicity due to solvents and surfactants is usually not seen.
    3) Fever, tachycardia, metabolic acidosis, acute renal failure, and respiratory failure have been reported after suicidal ingestions.
    0.2.3) VITAL SIGNS
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Hyperthermia and tachycardia have been reported with bentazon poisoning.
    0.2.4) HEENT
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Eye irritation and conjunctivitis, nasal irritation and mucosal irritation of the mouth and throat have occurred following bentazon exposures.
    0.2.6) RESPIRATORY
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Irregular breathing and dyspnea, progressing to respiratory failure, may occur following significant poisoning.
    0.2.7) NEUROLOGIC
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) CNS depression and tremors have been reported in humans and animals following toxic doses.
    0.2.8) GASTROINTESTINAL
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea are common symptoms following ingestions.
    0.2.10) GENITOURINARY
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) An intentional ingestion of bentazon resulted in mild renal insufficiency. This may have been a consequence of rhabdomyolysis and muscle rigidity, which were also reported in this patient.
    2) Acute renal failure was reported in two patients following suicidal ingestions of 44.1% bentazone solution.
    0.2.14) DERMATOLOGIC
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Bentazon is a moderate skin irritant.
    0.2.15) MUSCULOSKELETAL
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Human poisoning has resulted in hypertonia and rhabdomyolysis. Acute animal poisoning has resulted in significant hypertonia.
    0.2.20) REPRODUCTIVE
    A) At the time of this review, no studies were found on the possible human reproductive effects of bentazon.
    B) In one rat study, birth defects were reported, however, the validity of these results are in question.
    0.2.21) CARCINOGENICITY
    A) The EPA has concluded that bentazon was essentially noncarcinogenic in animals and was unlikely to cause human cancers. It is classified as "Group E" by the EPA (evidence of noncarcinogenicity to humans).

Laboratory Monitoring

    A) Bentazon serum concentrations are not readily available, nor clinically useful for guiding therapy.
    B) Monitor fluid and electrolyte status in symptomatic patients.
    C) Monitor vital signs and monitor patient for muscle rigidity, fever or CNS depression.
    D) Monitor ABGs and pulse oximetry in patients with respiratory symptoms.

Treatment Overview

    0.4.2) ORAL/PARENTERAL EXPOSURE
    A) There is no antidote for bentazon poisoning. Treatment is SYMPTOMATIC and SUPPORTIVE. Fluid and electrolyte replacement may be necessary. In the event of a suicidal ingestion, the possibility of multiple toxic substances having been swallowed should be considered. Solvents and surfactants are not generally used in bentazon herbicide preparations.
    B) Rinse the mouth and dilute with milk or water. For smaller ingestions, oral irrigation and dilution may be all that is necessary. Consider gastrointestinal decontamination only after large ingestions.
    C) Emesis is NOT recommended, although spontaneous vomiting may occur. CNS depression may occur.
    D) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL: Administer charcoal as a slurry (240 mL water/30 g charcoal). Usual dose: 25 to 100 g in adults/adolescents, 25 to 50 g in children (1 to 12 years), and 1 g/kg in infants less than 1 year old.
    E) Rehydrate the patient losing fluids through vomiting and diarrhea. Fluid and electrolyte status should be carefully monitored.
    F) Hyperthermia, tachycardia and pipe like muscle rigidity have been reported following an ingestion. Manage hyperthermia by keeping skin damp and using cooling fans. Manage muscle activity with benzodiazepines. Bromocriptine has been used in a single case report but efficacy is unclear.
    G) RHABDOMYOLYSIS: Administer sufficient 0.9% saline (10 to 15 mL/kg/hour) to maintain urine output of at least 1 to 2 mL/kg/hour (or greater than 150 to 300 mL/hr). Monitor input and output, serum electrolytes, CK, and renal function. Diuretics may be necessary to maintain urine output, but should only be considered if urine output is inadequate after volume status is restored. Urinary alkalinization is NOT routinely recommended.
    0.4.3) INHALATION EXPOSURE
    A) INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
    0.4.4) EYE EXPOSURE
    A) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.
    0.4.5) DERMAL EXPOSURE
    A) OVERVIEW
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).

Range Of Toxicity

    A) Ingestion by an adult of 132 grams bentazon in a water vehicle resulted in a neuroleptic malignant-like syndrome. Ingestion of 88 g bentazon was fatal in an adult.

Clinical Effects

Summary Of Exposure

    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Bentazon is a polar, acidic herbicide belonging to the tiodiazine family. It is moderately toxic by skin contact and ingestion. It is moderately irritating to the eyes and mucous membranes. Ingestion may result in nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, dyspnea, tremors, weakness, and CNS depression. Human poisoning mimicking neuroleptic malignant syndrome has been reported. Onset of symptoms may occur within 30 minutes of ingestion.
    2) Bentazon herbicides are generally formulated as aqueous solutions. Thus, toxicity due to solvents and surfactants is usually not seen.
    3) Fever, tachycardia, metabolic acidosis, acute renal failure, and respiratory failure have been reported after suicidal ingestions.

Vital Signs

    3.3.1) SUMMARY
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Hyperthermia and tachycardia have been reported with bentazon poisoning.
    3.3.3) TEMPERATURE
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Fever (38.2 C) has been reported shortly after a suicidal ingestion in a 27-year-old male (Lin et al, 1999).
    2) Animals given toxic oral doses have been reported to have fever, which disappeared after 1 to 2 days (Neuschl & Kacmar, 1993).
    3.3.5) PULSE
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Tachycardia may be noted following a large ingestion (Wu et al, 2008; Lin et al, 1999).

Heent

    3.4.1) SUMMARY
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Eye irritation and conjunctivitis, nasal irritation and mucosal irritation of the mouth and throat have occurred following bentazon exposures.
    3.4.3) EYES
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) IRRITATION - Bentazon is an eye irritant. Severe eye irritation has been reported following exposure, which healed within one week (HSDB, 2003; EXTOXNET, 1996).
    2) CONJUNCTIVITIS - In animal studies, prolonged or repeated exposure of the eyes to bentazon resulted in conjunctivitis (EXTOXNET, 1996).
    3.4.5) NOSE
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Inhalation of the powder may result in nasal irritation of the mucous membranes (HSDB, 2003; EXTOXNET, 1996).
    3.4.6) THROAT
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Irritation of the oral mucosa and throat may occur following ingestions (Wu et al, 2008; EXTOXNET, 1996).

Cardiovascular

    3.5.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) TACHYARRHYTHMIA
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) Sinus tachycardia (heart rate, 112 beats/min) was reported following an intentional ingestion of bentazon in an adult. The patient also developed fever and pipe-like muscle rigidity but recovered with supportive care (Lin et al, 1999).
    b) CASE REPORT - A 56-year-old man ingested 500 mL bentazon (480 g/L) and presented 45 minutes later with tachypnea and tachycardia (120 beats/min), vomiting and diarrhea (Turcant et al, 2003).
    c) CASE REPORT - Tachycardia (120 beats/min) occurred in a 31-year-old man after he ingested approximately 200 mL (1,764 mg/kg) of a solution containing 44.1% bentazone (Wu et al, 2008).

Respiratory

    3.6.1) SUMMARY
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Irregular breathing and dyspnea, progressing to respiratory failure, may occur following significant poisoning.
    3.6.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) DYSPNEA
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) Human ingestions of large bentazon doses have resulted in irregular breathing and dyspnea (EXTOXNET, 1996). Neuschl & Kacmar (1993) reported similar respiratory effects (shallow, accelerated breathing and dyspnea) in rabbits following administered acute toxic doses. Rabbits died as a result of asphyxia.
    B) RESPIRATORY FAILURE
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) CASE REPORT - A 31-year-old man developed progressive respiratory distress after ingesting 200 mL (1,764 mg/kg) of a solution containing 44.1% bentazone. Chest radiographs indicated bilateral infiltrates. Apnea developed on the third hospital day. Resuscitative measures were not instituted per the family and the patient subsequently died approximately 6 days post-ingestion (Wu et al, 2008).

Neurologic

    3.7.1) SUMMARY
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) CNS depression and tremors have been reported in humans and animals following toxic doses.
    3.7.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEFICIT
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) Ingestion of a large amount of bentazon has resulted in drowsiness, fatigue and weakness in both humans and animals (Lin et al, 1999; EXTOXNET, 1996; Neuschl & Kacmar, 1993).
    B) TREMOR
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) Trembling or tremors have been reported in humans following ingestions and in animal toxicity studies (EXTOXNET, 1996).

Gastrointestinal

    3.8.1) SUMMARY
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea are common symptoms following ingestions.
    3.8.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) GASTROENTERITIS
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) Ingestion of high doses may result in nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhea (Wu et al, 2008; Turcant et al, 2003; Lin et al, 1999; Pinto & Jardim, 1999; EXTOXNET, 1996). Anorexia, vomiting and diarrhea have been reported in animal toxicity studies (EXTOXNET, 1996).
    B) GASTRITIS
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) CASE REPORT - Gastritis and esophagitis occurred in a 23-year-old man following ingestion of 80 mL of a solution containing 44.1% bentazone. The patient recovered following supportive therapy (Wu et al, 2008).

Hepatic

    3.9.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) LIVER ENZYMES ABNORMAL
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) CASE REPORT - Elevated transaminase levels (AST 319 units/L, ALT 2,251 units/L) were reported in a 31-year-old man who intentionally ingested 200 mL (1,764 mg/kg) of a solution containing 44.1% bentazone (Wu et al, 2008).

Genitourinary

    3.10.1) SUMMARY
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) An intentional ingestion of bentazon resulted in mild renal insufficiency. This may have been a consequence of rhabdomyolysis and muscle rigidity, which were also reported in this patient.
    2) Acute renal failure was reported in two patients following suicidal ingestions of 44.1% bentazone solution.
    3.10.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) RENAL FAILURE SYNDROME
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) An intentional ingestion of bentazon (132 grams) resulted in mild renal insufficiency (creatinine 2.4 mg/dL, BUN 34 mg/dL, LDH 314 Units/L, ALT 47 Units/L, and AST 34 Units/L). This may have been a consequence of rhabdomyolysis and muscle rigidity, which were also reported in this patient (Lin et al, 1999).
    b) CASE REPORTS - Acute renal failure was reported in 2 patients following intentional ingestions of bentazone. The first patient, a 23-year-old man, presented with nausea, vomiting, coughing, and abdominal pain after ingesting 80 mL of 44.1% bentazone solution (569 mg/kg). Laboratory data revealed elevated serum creatinine and BUN levels of 1.8 mg/dL and 34 mg/dL, respectively. Following supportive therapy, the patient recovered. The second patient, a 31-year-old man, intentionally ingested 200 mL of a 44.1% bentazone solution (1,764 mg/kg) and subsequently developed nausea, vomiting, dyspnea, tachycardia, hypertension, and ulceration of his mouth and pharynx. Laboratory data indicated elevated serum creatinine (17.2 mg/dL), BUN (162 mg/dL), and hepatic transaminase levels, and arterial blood gas results revealed high anion gap metabolic acidosis. Despite hemodialysis for his renal failure, the patient continued to deteriorate and the patient died on the third hospital day (approximately 6 days post-ingestion) (Wu et al, 2008).

Acid-Base

    3.11.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) ACIDOSIS
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) CASE REPORT - High anion gap metabolic acidosis (pH 7.31, PO2 69.1 mmHg, PCO2 25.5 mmHg, HCO3 14.4 mm/L, anion gap 26 mEq/L) was reported in a 31-year-old man following an intentional ingestion of 200 mL (1,764 mg/kg) of a solution containing 44.1% bentazone. The patient also developed acute renal failure and progressive respiratory distress, resulting in his death approximately 6 days post-ingestion (Wu et al, 2008).

Hematologic

    3.13.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) LACK OF EFFECT
    a) SHEEP - In an acute toxicity study in sheep, no significant changes in hemoglobin, erythrocyte and leucocyte count were noted within 120 hours of administering a maximum oral dose of 1450 mg/kg body weight (Saly et al, 1995).

Dermatologic

    3.14.1) SUMMARY
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Bentazon is a moderate skin irritant.
    3.14.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) EXCESSIVE SWEATING
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) Fever and sweating were reported in one case of human poisoning (Lin et al, 1999). Agitation and diaphoresis developed within 2 hours of ingestion in a fatal case (Turcant et al, 2003)
    B) SKIN IRRITATION
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) Bentazon is moderately irritating to human skin. Prolonged or repeated dermal exposure may result in dermatitis (EXTOXNET, 1996).

Musculoskeletal

    3.15.1) SUMMARY
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Human poisoning has resulted in hypertonia and rhabdomyolysis. Acute animal poisoning has resulted in significant hypertonia.
    3.15.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) INCREASED MUSCLE TONE
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) CASE REPORT - Pipe-like muscle rigidity was reported in a 27-year-old male following an intentional ingestion of bentazon. No focal neurologic lesions were present. Skeletal reflexes remained normal. Following symptomatic care and 3 doses of bromocriptine therapy, the muscle rigidity resolved (Lin et al, 1999).
    b) CASE REPORT - A 56-year-old man ingested 500 mL bentazon (480 g/L) and presented 45 minutes later with tachypnea and tachycardia (120 beats/min), vomiting and diarrhea. Approximately 30 minutes later he developed agitation and diaphoresis and shortly thereafter developed difficulty breathing and lost consciousness. On arrival to the emergency department 7 minutes later he was in cardiorespiratory arrest with stoney rigidity that made endotracheal intubation impossible, and resuscitation was not successful (Turcant et al, 2003).
    B) RHABDOMYOLYSIS
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) CASE REPORT - Rhabdomyolysis, with peak CPK of 4600 on day 2, was reported in a 27-year-old male who developed muscle rigidity, fever, tachycardia and drowsiness after the intentional ingestion of bentazon. All symptoms resolved following symptomatic therapy (Lin et al, 1999).
    3.15.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) HYPERTONIA
    a) RABBITS - In an acute toxicity study, administration of 1110 and 1170 mg/kg to rabbits resulted in rapid onset and high intensity of muscle rigidity. Surviving animals recovered from hypertonia after 2 to 3 days (Neuschl & Kacmar, 1993).

Reproductive

    3.20.1) SUMMARY
    A) At the time of this review, no studies were found on the possible human reproductive effects of bentazon.
    B) In one rat study, birth defects were reported, however, the validity of these results are in question.
    3.20.2) TERATOGENICITY
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) RATS - In one study, with a dose of 200 mg/kg/day, birth defects were reported; however, the validity of these results are in question (EXTOXNET, 1996; El-Mahdi & Lotfi, 1988). No other data are available concerning teratogenic effects.

Carcinogenicity

    3.21.1) IARC CATEGORY
    A) IARC Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS25057-89-0 (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004):
    1) Not Listed
    3.21.2) SUMMARY/HUMAN
    A) The EPA has concluded that bentazon was essentially noncarcinogenic in animals and was unlikely to cause human cancers. It is classified as "Group E" by the EPA (evidence of noncarcinogenicity to humans).
    3.21.3) HUMAN STUDIES
    A) LACK OF EFFECT
    1) The EPA has concluded that bentazon was essentially noncarcinogenic in animals and was unlikely to cause human cancers (Eastmond & Balakrishnan, 2001). It is classified as "Group E" by the EPA (Huber & Otto, 1994).

Genotoxicity

    A) Negative results were reported in the bacterial mutation assays, in a mammalian cell assay, in the unscheduled DNA synthesis assay, and in the mouse micronucleus assay in vivo.

Laboratory Monitoring

Monitoring Parameters Levels

    4.1.1) SUMMARY
    A) Bentazon serum concentrations are not readily available, nor clinically useful for guiding therapy.
    B) Monitor fluid and electrolyte status in symptomatic patients.
    C) Monitor vital signs and monitor patient for muscle rigidity, fever or CNS depression.
    D) Monitor ABGs and pulse oximetry in patients with respiratory symptoms.

Methods

    A) CHROMATOGRAPHY
    1) HPLC-diode-array detection (HPLC-DAD) and HPLC-ultraviolet detection methods have been used to detect bentazon in blood and urine. Gas chromatography with mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) has also been used to detect bentazon in blood (Muller et al, 2003).
    2) Pinto & Jardim (1999) described a method for the determination and quantification of bentazon residues in water. Analysis is via reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with UV detection, after solid-phase extraction. No derivatization step is needed. Limit of detection and limit of quantification are 6.4 and 19.0 mcg/L, respectively. This method is reportedly simple, rapid and efficient.
    a) A similar HPLC method is described. In this method, the precolumn was washed with 0.1 mol/L sodium hydroxide solution and heartcutting was applied (transferring the fraction containing the solutes of interest to the analytical column). This eliminated interference of the large matrix peak. HPLC methodology was then used for determination of bentazon (Geerdink et al, 1991).
    3) Trace analysis of bentazon in surface water has been reported using analytical reversed-phase column with coupled-column reversed-phase liquid chromatography with UV detection. This LC-LC method allowed determination of bentazon in uncleaned extracts of surface water to a level of 0.05 mcg/L in less than 15 minutes (Hogendoorn et al, 1999).
    4) A combination of gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) is a sensitive method for the determination of bentazon in groundwater and drinking water. A determination limit of 0.05 mcg/L is reported (Huber & Otto, 1994).
    5) In pharmacokinetic studies, a thin-layer chromatography/autoradiography method was described for quantitation of radiolabeled bentazon in urine after oral dosing in rats (Chasseaud et al, 1972).

Treatment

Life Support

    A) Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

Patient Disposition

    6.3.1) DISPOSITION/ORAL EXPOSURE
    6.3.1.2) HOME CRITERIA/ORAL
    A) Exposure to small amounts of bentazon is generally NOT expected to result in significant toxicity. Asymptomatic children with accidental exposures can probably be managed safely at home with telephone follow up.
    6.3.3) DISPOSITION/INHALATION EXPOSURE
    6.3.3.1) ADMISSION CRITERIA/INHALATION
    A) Carefully observe patients with inhalation exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.

Monitoring

    A) Bentazon serum concentrations are not readily available, nor clinically useful for guiding therapy.
    B) Monitor fluid and electrolyte status in symptomatic patients.
    C) Monitor vital signs and monitor patient for muscle rigidity, fever or CNS depression.
    D) Monitor ABGs and pulse oximetry in patients with respiratory symptoms.

Oral Exposure

    6.5.1) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION/PREHOSPITAL
    A) SUMMARY
    1) Exposure to small amounts of bentazon is generally NOT expected to result in significant toxicity. Gastrointestinal decontamination should only be needed after large ingestions. For accidental ingestions in children, rinsing the mouth, washing exposed skin and dilution with a few sips of water should be sufficient.
    B) EMESIS/NOT RECOMMENDED
    1) Emesis is not recommended, although spontaneous vomiting may occur. CNS depression may occur rapidly after large ingestions, with symptoms developing within 30 minutes.
    C) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL
    1) PREHOSPITAL ACTIVATED CHARCOAL ADMINISTRATION
    a) Consider prehospital administration of activated charcoal as an aqueous slurry in patients with a potentially toxic ingestion who are awake and able to protect their airway. Activated charcoal is most effective when administered within one hour of ingestion. Administration in the prehospital setting has the potential to significantly decrease the time from toxin ingestion to activated charcoal administration, although it has not been shown to affect outcome (Alaspaa et al, 2005; Thakore & Murphy, 2002; Spiller & Rogers, 2002).
    1) In patients who are at risk for the abrupt onset of seizures or mental status depression, activated charcoal should not be administered in the prehospital setting, due to the risk of aspiration in the event of spontaneous emesis.
    2) The addition of flavoring agents (cola drinks, chocolate milk, cherry syrup) to activated charcoal improves the palatability for children and may facilitate successful administration (Guenther Skokan et al, 2001; Dagnone et al, 2002).
    2) CHARCOAL DOSE
    a) Use a minimum of 240 milliliters of water per 30 grams charcoal (FDA, 1985). Optimum dose not established; usual dose is 25 to 100 grams in adults and adolescents; 25 to 50 grams in children aged 1 to 12 years (or 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram body weight) ; and 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram in infants up to 1 year old (Chyka et al, 2005).
    1) Routine use of a cathartic with activated charcoal is NOT recommended as there is no evidence that cathartics reduce drug absorption and cathartics are known to cause adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, electrolyte imbalances and occasionally hypotension (None Listed, 2004).
    b) ADVERSE EFFECTS/CONTRAINDICATIONS
    1) Complications: emesis, aspiration (Chyka et al, 2005). Aspiration may be complicated by acute respiratory failure, ARDS, bronchiolitis obliterans or chronic lung disease (Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002; Pollack et al, 1981; Harris & Filandrinos, 1993; Elliot et al, 1989; Rau et al, 1988; Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002). Refer to the ACTIVATED CHARCOAL/TREATMENT management for further information.
    2) Contraindications: unprotected airway (increases risk/severity of aspiration) , nonfunctioning gastrointestinal tract, uncontrolled vomiting, and ingestion of most hydrocarbons (Chyka et al, 2005).
    6.5.2) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION
    A) SUMMARY
    1) Exposure to small amounts of bentazon is generally NOT expected to result in significant toxicity. Gastrointestinal decontamination should only be needed after large ingestions. For accidental ingestions in children rinsing the mouth, washing exposed skin and dilution with a few sips of water should be sufficient.
    B) EMESIS/NOT RECOMMENDED
    1) Emesis is not recommended, although spontaneous vomiting may occur.
    C) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL
    1) CHARCOAL ADMINISTRATION
    a) Consider administration of activated charcoal after a potentially toxic ingestion (Chyka et al, 2005). Administer charcoal as an aqueous slurry; most effective when administered within one hour of ingestion.
    2) CHARCOAL DOSE
    a) Use a minimum of 240 milliliters of water per 30 grams charcoal (FDA, 1985). Optimum dose not established; usual dose is 25 to 100 grams in adults and adolescents; 25 to 50 grams in children aged 1 to 12 years (or 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram body weight) ; and 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram in infants up to 1 year old (Chyka et al, 2005).
    1) Routine use of a cathartic with activated charcoal is NOT recommended as there is no evidence that cathartics reduce drug absorption and cathartics are known to cause adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, electrolyte imbalances and occasionally hypotension (None Listed, 2004).
    b) ADVERSE EFFECTS/CONTRAINDICATIONS
    1) Complications: emesis, aspiration (Chyka et al, 2005). Aspiration may be complicated by acute respiratory failure, ARDS, bronchiolitis obliterans or chronic lung disease (Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002; Pollack et al, 1981; Harris & Filandrinos, 1993; Elliot et al, 1989; Rau et al, 1988; Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002). Refer to the ACTIVATED CHARCOAL/TREATMENT management for further information.
    2) Contraindications: unprotected airway (increases risk/severity of aspiration) , nonfunctioning gastrointestinal tract, uncontrolled vomiting, and ingestion of most hydrocarbons (Chyka et al, 2005).
    6.5.3) TREATMENT
    A) SUPPORT
    1) Bentazon is of low order toxicity in mammals. Following a massive ingestion, CNS depression may occur; a syndrome of fever, tachycardia, diaphoresis, lethargy, muscle rigidity, mild rhabdomyolysis and mild renal insufficiency has been reported after a large ingestion. Treatment is symptomatic and supportive. The possibility of multiple toxic substances having been swallowed should be considered in suicidal ingestion. It is important to elucidate which other toxic substances may be involved and treat accordingly.
    B) IRRIGATION
    1) Irrigate the mouth with water rinses.
    C) FLUID/ELECTROLYTE BALANCE REGULATION
    1) Vomiting and diarrhea may be prolonged with large ingestions of herbicide formulations containing solvents, resulting in fluid and electrolyte loss. Monitor and replace as necessary.
    D) BODY TEMPERATURE ABOVE REFERENCE RANGE
    1) Control agitation and muscle activity/rigidity. Undress patient and enhance evaporative heat loss by keeping skin damp and using cooling fans. Vigorous treatment with cooling blankets, mist and fan technique, and tepid sponging are initial steps; iced bath immersion is a final approach for patients with severe hyperpyrexia.
    E) MUSCLE RIGIDITY
    1) Benzodiazepines may be useful. Diazepam: Adult: 5 to 10 milligrams IV every 5 to 10 minutes as needed, monitor for respiratory depression and need for intubation. Child: 0.25 milligram/kilogram IV every 5 to 10 minutes; monitor for respiratory depression and need for intubation.
    2) Non-depolarizing paralytics may be used in severe cases.
    3) BROMOCRIPTINE - Was used in a single case, efficacy is unclear. Usual dose is 2.5 to 5 mg orally three times daily initially; if response is inadequate, increase dose rapidly to a maximum of 20 mg four times daily.
    F) RHABDOMYOLYSIS
    1) SUMMARY: Early aggressive fluid replacement is the mainstay of therapy and may help prevent renal insufficiency. Diuretics such as mannitol or furosemide may be added if necessary to maintain urine output but only after volume status has been restored as hypovolemia will increase renal tubular damage. Urinary alkalinization is NOT routinely recommended.
    2) Initial treatment should be directed towards controlling acute metabolic disturbances such as hyperkalemia, hyperthermia, and hypovolemia. Control seizures, agitation, and muscle contractions (Erdman & Dart, 2004).
    3) FLUID REPLACEMENT: Early and aggressive fluid replacement is the mainstay of therapy to prevent renal failure. Vigorous fluid replacement with 0.9% saline (10 to 15 mL/kg/hour) is necessary even if there is no evidence of dehydration. Several liters of fluid may be needed within the first 24 hours (Walter & Catenacci, 2008; Camp, 2009; Huerta-Alardin et al, 2005; Criddle, 2003; Polderman, 2004). Hypovolemia, increased insensible losses, and third spacing of fluid commonly increase fluid requirements. Strive to maintain a urine output of at least 1 to 2 mL/kg/hour (or greater than 150 to 300 mL/hour) (Walter & Catenacci, 2008; Camp, 2009; Erdman & Dart, 2004; Criddle, 2003). To maintain a urine output this high, 500 to 1000 mL of fluid per hour may be required (Criddle, 2003). Monitor fluid input and urine output, plus insensible losses. Monitor for evidence of fluid overload and compartment syndrome; monitor serum electrolytes, CK, and renal function tests.
    4) DIURETICS: Diuretics (eg, mannitol or furosemide) may be needed to ensure adequate urine output and to prevent acute renal failure when used in combination with aggressive fluid therapy. Loop diuretics increase tubular flow and decrease deposition of myoglobin. These agents should be used only after volume status has been restored, as hypovolemia will increase renal tubular damage. If the patient is maintaining adequate urine output, loop diuretics are not necessary (Vanholder et al, 2000).
    5) URINARY ALKALINIZATION: Alkalinization of the urine is not routinely recommended, as it has never been documented to reduce nephrotoxicity, and may cause complications such as hypocalcemia and hypokalemia (Walter & Catenacci, 2008; Huerta-Alardin et al, 2005; Brown et al, 2004; Polderman, 2004). Retrospective studies have failed to demonstrate any clinical benefit from the use of urinary alkalinization (Brown et al, 2004; Polderman, 2004; Homsi et al, 1997).
    G) TELEPHONE CONSULTATION
    1) The National Pesticide Information Center (NPIC) is a cooperative effort of Oregon State University and the US EPA. NPIC provides consultation to poison centers and other health care professionals for the management of pesticide poisoning. Calls regarding emergency cases requiring immediate medical response will be transferred to the Oregon Poison Center.
    a) NPIC contact information: phone: 1-800-858-7378. email: npic@ace.orst.edu Hours: 8 AM to 12 PM Pacific time Monday through Friday, excluding holidays.

Inhalation Exposure

    6.7.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) Move patient from the toxic environment to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty in breathing develops, evaluate for hypoxia, respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis.
    B) OBSERVATION: Carefully observe patients with inhalation exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    C) INITIAL TREATMENT: Administer 100% humidified supplemental oxygen, perform endotracheal intubation and provide assisted ventilation as required. Administer inhaled beta-2 adrenergic agonists, if bronchospasm develops. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm (National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute, 2007). Exposed skin and eyes should be flushed with copious amounts of water.
    6.7.2) TREATMENT
    A) MONITORING OF PATIENT
    1) If respiratory tract irritation or respiratory depression is evident, monitor arterial blood gases, chest x-ray, and pulmonary function tests.
    B) Treatment should include recommendations listed in the ORAL EXPOSURE section when appropriate.

Eye Exposure

    6.8.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) EYE IRRIGATION, ROUTINE: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, an ophthalmologic examination should be performed (Peate, 2007; Naradzay & Barish, 2006).

Dermal Exposure

    6.9.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) DERMAL DECONTAMINATION
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and wash exposed area thoroughly with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
    6.9.2) TREATMENT
    A) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Treat dermal irritation or burns with standard topical therapy. Patients developing dermal hypersensitivity reactions may require treatment with systemic or topical corticosteroids or antihistamines.
    B) Treatment should include recommendations listed in the ORAL EXPOSURE section when appropriate.

Enhanced Elimination

    A) SUMMARY
    1) No studies have addressed the utilization of extracorporeal elimination techniques in poisoning with this herbicide.

Abstracts

Case Reports

    A) ADULT
    1) Following a suicidal ingestion of an estimated 132 grams of bentazon in a water vehicle, a 27-year-old male presented to the ED with vomiting, fever and sweating, pipe-like muscle rigidity, and drowsiness. Symptoms began about 10 minutes after the ingestion. Absent focal neurologic lesions, and normal Babinski's sign and normal skeletal reflexes were noted (Lin et al, 1999).
    a) Abnormal laboratory findings included: WBC (11,800/mm(3)), PMN (83%), CPK (4600 Units/L), ALT (47 Units/L), AST (34 Units/L), LDH (314 Units/L), ammonia (139 mcg/dL), BUN (34 mg/dL), and creatinine (2.4 mg/dL).
    b) Following gastric decontamination with lavage and activated charcoal, empirical therapy with bromocriptine 2.5 mg three times daily for 3 days was administered. After 3 doses, the fever, muscle rigidity and drowsiness resolved. The patient was discharged on day 6 with no further sequelae.
    2) A 59-year-old woman intentionally ingested 100 to 200 mL Basagran(R). She developed vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and muddled speech. She later deteriorated and cardiac sustained arrest. Resuscitation attempts failed. Blood concentrations of bentazon at autopsy were 625 mg/kg (Muller et al, 2003).

Range Of Toxicity

Summary

    A) Ingestion by an adult of 132 grams bentazon in a water vehicle resulted in a neuroleptic malignant-like syndrome. Ingestion of 88 g bentazon was fatal in an adult.

Minimum Lethal Exposure

    A) Ingestion of 500 mL of FIGHTER(R) (bentazon 480 g/L water) has been fatal (Turcant et al, 2003)
    B) CASE REPORT - A 31-year-old man developed acute renal failure and respiratory failure after ingesting approximately 200 mL (1,764 mg/kg, 88.2 g total) of a solution containing 44.1% bentazone. The patient died on the third hospital day (approximately 6 days post-ingestion) (Wu et al, 2008).

Maximum Tolerated Exposure

    A) GENERAL/SUMMARY
    1) A World Health Organization drinking water quality guideline value for bentazon of 25-30 micrograms/liter is recommended. This value was calculated as 10% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI), which in turn was calculated from available toxicological studies (Huber & Otto, 1994; Kello, 1989). The ADI, based on results of a long-term study in rats, is set at 0.1 milligram/kilogram body weight/day (Huber & Otto, 1994).
    B) ADULT
    1) CASE REPORT - Following the ingestion of 132 grams of bentazon in a water vehicle, a 27-year-old male developed symptoms mimicking neuroleptic malignant syndrome (fever, vomiting, sinus tachycardia, muscle rigidity, rhabdomyolysis, drowsiness). Symptoms improved following 3 doses of bromocriptine over a one-day period (Lin et al, 1999).
    2) CASE REPORT - A 23-year-old man developed nausea, vomiting, gastritis, and acute renal failure after ingesting 80 mL (569 mg/kg) of a solution containing 44.1% bentazone. With supportive care, the patient recovered and was discharged approximately 5 days post-ingestion (Wu et al, 2008).

Serum Plasma Blood Concentrations

    7.5.2) TOXIC CONCENTRATIONS
    A) TOXIC CONCENTRATION LEVELS
    1) The post-mortem blood concentration of a 59-year-old woman, who ingested 100 to 200 milliliters of Basagran(R), was 625 milligrams/kilogram. Basagran(R) is an herbicide which contains 480 grams/ liter of bentazone (Muller et al, 2003).

Workplace Standards

    A) ACGIH TLV Values for CAS25057-89-0 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):
    1) Not Listed

    B) NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS25057-89-0 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):
    1) Not Listed

    C) Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS25057-89-0 :
    1) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): Not Listed
    2) EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): E ; Listed as: Bentazon (Basagran)
    a) E : Evidence of non-carcinogenicity for humans.
    3) IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): Not Listed
    4) NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Not Listed
    5) MAK (DFG, 2002): Not Listed
    6) NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): Not Listed

    D) OSHA PEL Values for CAS25057-89-0 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):
    1) Not Listed

Toxicity Information

    7.7.1) TOXICITY VALUES
    A) References: RTECS, 2003 HSDB, 2003 Lewis, 1996 EXTOXNET, 1993 Sittig, 1991)
    1) LD50- (ORAL)MOUSE:
    a) 1130 mg/kg
    b) 400 mg/kg
    2) LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
    a) 1100 mg/kg
    3) LD50- (SKIN)RAT:
    a) 2500 mg/kg
    b) 2500 mg/kg

Pharmacology Toxicology

Pharmacologic Mechanism

    A) PLANTS - Bentazon is a post-emergence contact herbicide, causing injury only to the parts of plants to which it is applied. It is taken up mainly by the green parts of sensitive plants and translocated within the plant. The plants (dicot weeds) ability to use sunlight for photosynthesis is inhibited (EXTOXNET, 1996; Huber & Otto, 1994).

Physicochemical

Physical Characteristics

    A) Bentazon exists as an odorless, non-volatile colorless to white, crystalline powder (Budavari, 2001; EXTOXNET, 1996; EPA, 1988)
    1) The technical grade of this compound is a slightly brown solid (EXTOXNET, 1996).
    2) Other formulations include flowable concentrates and soluble concentrate/liquids ((EPA, 1994)).
    3) The usual carrier for this compound is water. Under certain conditions, an oil concentrate may be used (EPA, 1988).

Ph

    A) Bentazon is an acidic polar herbicide, which is thermally unstable (Hogendoorn et al, 1999; Pinto & Jardim, 1999). Its pKa is 3.3 at 24 degrees C (Budavari, 2001; Huber & Otto, 1994).

Molecular Weight

    A) 240.28 (Budavari, 2001)

Other

    A) ODOR THRESHOLD
    1) odorless (HSDB, 2003)

References

General Bibliography

    1) 40 CFR 372.28: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Lower thresholds for chemicals of special concern. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO). Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.
    2) 40 CFR 372.65: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Chemicals and Chemical Categories to which this part applies. National Archives and Records Association (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.
    3) 49 CFR 172.101 - App. B: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials, Appendix B: List of Marine Pollutants. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 29, 2005.
    4) 49 CFR 172.101: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 11, 2005.
    5) 62 FR 58840: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 1997.
    6) 65 FR 14186: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.
    7) 65 FR 39264: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.
    8) 65 FR 77866: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.
    9) 66 FR 21940: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2001.
    10) 67 FR 7164: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2002.
    11) 68 FR 42710: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2003.
    12) 69 FR 54144: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2004.
    13) AIHA: 2006 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines and Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook, American Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006.
    14) Alaspaa AO, Kuisma MJ, Hoppu K, et al: Out-of-hospital administration of activated charcoal by emergency medical services. Ann Emerg Med 2005; 45:207-12.
    15) American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists : ACGIH 2010 Threshold Limit Values (TLVs(R)) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs(R)), American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH, 2010.
    16) Ashford R: Ashford's Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals, Wavelength Publications Ltd, London, England, 1994.
    17) Brown CV, Rhee P, Chan L, et al: Preventing renal failure in patients with rhabdomyolysis: do bicarbonate and mannitol make a difference?. J Trauma 2004; 56(6):1191-1196.
    18) Budavari S: The Merck Index, 12th ed, Merck & Co, Inc, Whitehouse Station, NJ, 1996.
    19) Budavari S: The Merck Index, 13th ed, Merck & Co, Inc, Whitehouse Station, NJ, 2001.
    20) Burgess JL, Kirk M, Borron SW, et al: Emergency department hazardous materials protocol for contaminated patients. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 34(2):205-212.
    21) Camp NE: Drug- and toxin-induced Rhabdomyolysis. J Emerg Nurs 2009; 35(5):481-482.
    22) Chasseaud LF, Hawkins DR, & Cameron BD: The metabolic fate of bentazon in the rat. Xenobiotica 1972; 2:269-276.
    23) Chyka PA, Seger D, Krenzelok EP, et al: Position paper: Single-dose activated charcoal. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2005; 43(2):61-87.
    24) Criddle LM: Rhabdomyolysis. Pathophysiology, recognition, and management. Crit Care Nurse 2003; 23(6):14-22, 24-26, 28.
    25) DFG: List of MAK and BAT Values 2002, Report No. 38, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazards of Chemical Compounds in the Work Area, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany, 2002.
    26) Dagnone D, Matsui D, & Rieder MJ: Assessment of the palatability of vehicles for activated charcoal in pediatric volunteers. Pediatr Emerg Care 2002; 18:19-21.
    27) EPA: Pesticide Fact Book, Vol. 1, Noyes Data Corp, Park Ridge, NJ, 1988.
    28) EPA: Reregistration Eligibility Decision (R.E.D.) FACTS: Bentazon. (EPA Publ. No. EPA-738-F-94-026). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC, USA. 1994. Available from URL: http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/0182fact.pdf.
    29) EPA: Search results for Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Inventory Chemicals. US Environmental Protection Agency, Substance Registry System, U.S. EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.epa.gov/srs/.
    30) ERG: Emergency Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial Phase of a Dangerous Goods/Hazardous Materials Incident, U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Washington, DC, 2004.
    31) EXTOXNET: Extension Toxicology Network Pesticide Information Profiles: Bentazon. Extension Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET), Oregon State University. Corvallis, OR, USA. 1996. Available from URL: http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/pips/bentazon.htm. As accessed Accessed July 24, 2002.
    32) EXTOXNET: Extension Toxicology Network. Extension Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET), Oregon State University. Corvallis, OR, USA. 1993. Available from URL: http://ace.ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/.
    33) Eastmond DA & Balakrishnan S: Genetic Toxicity of Pesticides. In: Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, 2nd Ed.; Krieger RI (Ed), Academic Press, New York, NY, 2001.
    34) El-Mahdi MM & Lotfi MM: Teratological effects of pesticide (Basagran) on embryo of albino rat. Arch Exp Veterinarmed 1988; 42:261-266.
    35) Elliot CG, Colby TV, & Kelly TM: Charcoal lung. Bronchiolitis obliterans after aspiration of activated charcoal. Chest 1989; 96:672-674.
    36) Erdman AR & Dart RC: Rhabdomyolysis. In: Dart RC, Caravati EM, McGuigan MA, et al, eds. Medical Toxicology, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 2004, pp 123-127.
    37) FDA: Poison treatment drug product for over-the-counter human use; tentative final monograph. FDA: Fed Register 1985; 50:2244-2262.
    38) Geerdink RB, Graumans AM, & Viveen J: Determination of phenoxyacid herbicides in water. J Chromatogr 1991; 547:478-483.
    39) Golej J, Boigner H, Burda G, et al: Severe respiratory failure following charcoal application in a toddler. Resuscitation 2001; 49:315-318.
    40) Graff GR, Stark J, & Berkenbosch JW: Chronic lung disease after activated charcoal aspiration. Pediatrics 2002; 109:959-961.
    41) Guenther Skokan E, Junkins EP, & Corneli HM: Taste test: children rate flavoring agents used with activated charcoal. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001; 155:683-686.
    42) HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 1997; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
    43) HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2002; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
    44) HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2003; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
    45) Harris CR & Filandrinos D: Accidental administration of activated charcoal into the lung: aspiration by proxy. Ann Emerg Med 1993; 22:1470-1473.
    46) Hogendoorn EA, Westhuis K, & Dijkman E: Semi-permeable surface analytical reversed-phase column for the improved trace analysis of acidic pesticides in water with coupled-column reversed-phase liquid chromatography with UV detection. Determination of bromoxynil and bentazone in surface water. J Chromatogr 1999; 858:45-54.
    47) Homsi E, Barreiro MF, Orlando JM, et al: Prophylaxis of acute renal failure in patients with rhabdomyolysis. Ren Fail 1997; 19(2):283-288.
    48) Huber R & Otto S: Environmental behavior of bentazon herbicide. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 1994; 137:111-134.
    49) Huerta-Alardin AL, Varon J, & Marik PE: Bench-to-bedside review: Rhabdomyolysis -- an overview for clinicians. Crit Care 2005; 9(2):158-169.
    50) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: 1,3-Butadiene, Ethylene Oxide and Vinyl Halides (Vinyl Fluoride, Vinyl Chloride and Vinyl Bromide), 97, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2008.
    51) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol and 1-tert-Butoxypropan-2-ol, 88, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2006.
    52) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Household Use of Solid Fuels and High-temperature Frying, 95, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010a.
    53) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Smokeless Tobacco and Some Tobacco-specific N-Nitrosamines, 89, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2007.
    54) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some Non-heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Some Related Exposures, 92, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010.
    55) IARC: List of all agents, mixtures and exposures evaluated to date - IARC Monographs: Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity to Humans, Volumes 1-88, 1972-PRESENT. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon, FranceAvailable from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/monoeval/crthall.html. As accessed Oct 07, 2004.
    56) ICAO: Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air, 2003-2004. International Civil Aviation Organization, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2002.
    57) International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: list of classifications, volumes 1-116. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Lyon, France. 2016. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/latest_classif.php. As accessed 2016-08-24.
    58) International Agency for Research on Cancer: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. 2015. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/. As accessed 2015-08-06.
    59) Kaya B, Marcos R, Yanikoglu A, et al: Evaluation of the genotoxicity of four herbicides in the wing spot test of Drosophila melangaster using two different strains. Mutat Res 2004; 557:53-62.
    60) Kello D: WHO drinking water quality guidelines for selected herbicides. Food Addit Contam 1989; 6(Suppl 1):S79-S85.
    61) Lewis RJ: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 9th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1996.
    62) Lin TJ, Hung DZ, & Hu WH: Acute basagran(tm) poisoning mimicking neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Hum Exp Toxicol 1999; 18:493-494.
    63) Mikula I, Pistl J, & Kacmar P: The immune response of sheep to subclinical chronic exposure to the herbicide Bentazon TP. Vet Human Toxicol 1992; 34:507-509.
    64) Morgan DP: Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings, 4th ed. US Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-540/9-88-001, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1989.
    65) Muller IB, Petersen HW, Johansen SS, et al: Fatal overdose of the herbicide bentazone. Forensic Sci Int 2003; 135:235-236.
    66) NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 13th ed., National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.
    67) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 1, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.
    68) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 2, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2002.
    69) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 3, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2003.
    70) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 4, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2004.
    71) Naradzay J & Barish RA: Approach to ophthalmologic emergencies. Med Clin North Am 2006; 90(2):305-328.
    72) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    73) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    74) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Butylene Oxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648083cdbb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    75) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Dibromoethane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802796db&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.
    76) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    77) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 2-Ethylhexyl Chloroformate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037904e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    78) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Acrylonitrile (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648028e6a3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    79) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Adamsite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    80) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Agent BZ (3-quinuclidinyl benzilate) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ad507&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.
    81) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Allyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039d9ee&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    82) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    83) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Arsenic Trioxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480220305&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    84) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Automotive Gasoline Unleaded (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cc17&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    85) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Biphenyl (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1b7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    86) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bis-Chloromethyl Ether (BCME) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648022db11&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    87) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Boron Tribromide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae1d3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    88) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromine Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039732a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    89) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromoacetone (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187bf&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    90) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Calcium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    91) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae328&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    92) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Sulfide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037ff26&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    93) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Chlorobenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803a52bb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    94) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Cyanogen (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187fe&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    95) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Dimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbf3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    96) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Diphenylchloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    97) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091884e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    98) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Phosphorodichloridate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480920347&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    99) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809203e7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    100) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    101) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Germane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963906&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    102) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Hexafluoropropylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1f5&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    103) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ketene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ee7c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    104) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    105) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    106) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Malathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809639df&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    107) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Mercury Vapor (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a087&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    108) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Isothiocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a03&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    109) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a57&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    110) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802a4985&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    111) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methylchlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5f4&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    112) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    113) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c646&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    114) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN1 CAS Reg. No. 538-07-8) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    115) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN2 CAS Reg. No. 51-75-2) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    116) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN3 CAS Reg. No. 555-77-1) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    117) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Tetroxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091855b&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    118) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Trifluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    119) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008o. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e32&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    120) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perchloryl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e268&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    121) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perfluoroisobutylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    122) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008p. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dd58&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    123) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020cc0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    124) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    125) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phorate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008q. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dcc8&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    126) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene (Draft-Revised). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a08a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    127) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene Oxime (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26d&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    128) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    129) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    130) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Propargyl Alcohol (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec91&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    131) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Selenium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec55&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    132) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Silane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d523&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    133) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    134) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    135) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Strontium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    136) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sulfuryl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec7a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    137) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tear Gas (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008s. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e551&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    138) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tellurium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e2a1&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    139) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tert-Octyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008r. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5c7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    140) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tetramethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-17.
    141) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    142) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7d608&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    143) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethylacetyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008t. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5cc&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    144) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Zinc Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    145) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for n-Butyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064808f9591&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    146) National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute: Expert panel report 3: guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute. Bethesda, MD. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.pdf.
    147) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, 2007.
    148) National Research Council : Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 5, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2007.
    149) National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 6, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2008.
    150) National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 7, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2009.
    151) National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 8, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2010.
    152) Neuschl J & Kacmar P: Acute oral toxicity of bentazon, an herbicide developed in Czechoslovakia, in pheasants and rabbits and the clinical symptoms of poisoning (abstract). Vet Med (Praha) 1993; 38:115-121.
    153) None Listed: Position paper: cathartics. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2004; 42(3):243-253.
    154) Peate WF: Work-related eye injuries and illnesses. Am Fam Physician 2007; 75(7):1017-1022.
    155) Pinto GM & Jardim IC: Determination of bentazon residues in water by high-performance liquid chromatography. Validation of the method. J Chromatogr 1999; 846:369-374.
    156) Pohanish RP: Sittig's Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens, 4th ed, Noyes Publications / William Andrew Publishing, Norwich, NY, 2002.
    157) Polderman KH: Acute renal failure and rhabdomyolysis. Int J Artif Organs 2004; 27(12):1030-1033.
    158) Pollack MM, Dunbar BS, & Holbrook PR: Aspiration of activated charcoal and gastric contents. Ann Emerg Med 1981; 10:528-529.
    159) RTECS : Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires July/31/1997; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
    160) Rau NR, Nagaraj MV, Prakash PS, et al: Fatal pulmonary aspiration of oral activated charcoal. Br Med J 1988; 297:918-919.
    161) Saly J, Kacmar P, & Neuschl J: The effect of bentazone TP, an herbicide, on hematologic indicators in sheep during acute and subchronic poisoning (abstract). Vet Med (Praha) 1995; 40:49-52.
    162) Sittig M: Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens, 3rd ed, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1991.
    163) Spiller HA & Rogers GC: Evaluation of administration of activated charcoal in the home. Pediatrics 2002; 108:E100.
    164) Thakore S & Murphy N: The potential role of prehospital administration of activated charcoal. Emerg Med J 2002; 19:63-65.
    165) Turcant A, Harry P, Cailleux A, et al: Fatal acute poisoning by bentazon. J Anal Toxicol 2003; 27:113-117.
    166) U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management: Protective Action Criteria (PAC) with AEGLs, ERPGs, & TEELs: Rev. 26 for chemicals of concern. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.hss.doe.gov/HealthSafety/WSHP/Chem_Safety/teel.html. As accessed 2011-06-27.
    167) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project : 11th Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/INDEXA5E1.HTM?objectid=32BA9724-F1F6-975E-7FCE50709CB4C932. As accessed 2011-06-27.
    168) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Discarded commercial chemical products, off-specification species, container residues, and spill residues thereof. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities 2010b; 40CFR(261.33, e-f):77-.
    169) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2011. Available from URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/index.cfm?fuseaction=iris.showSubstanceList&list_type=date. As accessed 2011-06-21.
    170) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of Radionuclides. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010a. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.
    171) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.
    172) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: The list of extremely hazardous substances and their threshold planning quantities (CAS Number Order). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010c. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-part355.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.
    173) U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Part 1910 - Occupational safety and health standards (continued) Occupational Safety, and Health Administration's (OSHA) list of highly hazardous chemicals, toxics and reactives. Subpart Z - toxic and hazardous substances. CFR 2010 2010; Vol6(SEC1910):7-.
    174) U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA): Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals. 29 CFR 2010 2010; 29(1910.119):348-.
    175) Ugazio G, Bosio A, & Burdino E: Lethality, hexobarbital narcosis and behavior in rats exposed to atrazine, bentazon or molinate. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 1991; 74:349-361.
    176) United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Vinyl Acetate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6af&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    177) Vanholder R, Sever MS, Erek E, et al: Rhabdomyolysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 2000; 11(8):1553-1561.
    178) Verschueren K: Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals. 4th ed. CD-ROM version. Wiley-Interscience. Hoboken, NJ. 2001.
    179) Walter LA & Catenacci MH: Rhabdomyolysis. Hosp Physician 2008; 44(1):25-31.
    180) Wu IW , Wu MS , & Lin JL : Acute renal failure induced by bentazone: 2 case reports and a comprehensive review. J Nephrol 2008; 21(2):256-260.