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VINYLIDENE CHLORIDE

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Classification   |    Detailed evidence-based information

Substances Included Synonyms

Therapeutic Toxic Class

    A) Vinylidene chloride is a chemical intermediate in making fibers, plastics and adhesives.

Specific Substances

    1) Asym-dichloroethylene
    2) 1,1-DCE
    3) 1,1-Dichloroethene
    4) 1,1-Dichloroethylene
    5) NCI-c 54262
    6) VDC
    7) Vinylidene dichloride
    8) CAS 75-35-4
    9) CHLORURE DE VINYLIDENE
    10) VC (VINYLIDENE CHLORIDE)
    11) VDC (VINYLIDENE CHLORIDE)
    1.2.1) MOLECULAR FORMULA
    1) C2-H2-Cl2

Available Forms Sources

    A) FORMS
    1) The compound is a colorless, clear, mobile liquid (Ashford, 1994; Bingham et al, 2001).
    2) A small proportion of the commercial substance is the inhibitor (Lewis, 1997).
    3) Small amounts of monomethyl ether of hydroquinone stabilizer are contained in the technical or commercial grade of vinylidene chloride (Raffle et al, 1994).
    B) SOURCES
    1) It is produced by dehydrochlorination of 1,1,2-trichloroethane (Ashford, 1994; Budavari, 1996).
    2) Successively chlorinating and dehydrochlorinating vinyl chloride can produce vinylidene chloride (HSDB , 2002).
    3) Vinylidene chloride "is an environmental degradation product of perchloroethylene and trichloroethylene" (ACGIH, 1991).
    4) It is thought that the substance does not occur naturally (Howard, 1989).
    5) Manufacturers of plastics and metal finishing operations can release vinylidene chloride to the environment through wastewater. However, much of the substance will evaporate to the atmosphere (Howard, 1989).
    6) Humans can be exposed to the substance in factories and polymerization plants (Baxter et al, 2000).
    7) In the 1960's and 1970's, 1,1,1-trichloroethane was produced using vinylidene chloride (ACGIH, 1991).
    C) USES
    1) Vinylidene chloride is used mainly as a comonomer in the manufacture of thermoplastic copolymers. These copolymers are used as coatings and films and have such common names as Saran(R) and Velon(R). Copolymers containing as much as 85 percent vinylidene chloride have been approved for use in irradiated foods (ACGIH, 1991; Budavari, 1996; Haley, 1975; Torkelson & Rowe, 1981).
    a) Copolymerization occurs between vinylidene chloride and various vinyl monomers, such as acrylonitrile, alkyl acrylate, methacrylates and vinyl acetate. The copolymers of vinylidene chloride are used in carpet backing as flame-retardant binders and in lacquer resins (ACGIH, 1991).
    2) Additional uses include extrusion resins, barrier coatings, various reinforcement materials, food packaging, and as a component of adhesives and synthetic fibers (Baxter et al, 2000; HSDB , 2002; Raffle et al, 1994).
    3) Vinylidene chloride latexes are mixed in cement and mortar to increase their strength. The latexes also provide flame-retardant and water-resistant qualities to non-woven fabrics and paints (Sittig, 1991).

Overview

Life Support

    A) This overview assumes that basic life support measures have been instituted.

Clinical Effects

    0.2.1) SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
    A) Vinylidene chloride is toxic by ingestion, inhalation and intravenous exposure routes. It is irritating to the eyes, skin, respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract.
    B) Signs and symptoms of exposure may include dizziness, drowsiness, headache, dyspnea and pneumonitis. Exposure to high concentrations can produce central nervous system depression and unconsciousness. Hepatic and renal dysfunction may result from chronic exposure. Eye contact may cause conjunctivitis and transient corneal injury.
    C) It is considered a potential carcinogen and mutagen.
    0.2.4) HEENT
    A) Vinylidene chloride is irritating to the eyes, nose and throat, and may cause conjunctivitis, transient corneal injury and iritis with eye exposure. Solutions containing the inhibitor MEHQ may cause serious eye injury.
    0.2.6) RESPIRATORY
    A) Vinylidene chloride is irritating to the upper respiratory tract and lungs.
    0.2.7) NEUROLOGIC
    A) Inhaled vinylidene chloride can result in central nervous system depression, with dizziness, drowsiness, symptoms of inebriation, and possibly unconsciousness. The extent of the depression is related to the concentration inhaled. Trigeminal nerve neuropathy has been reported.
    0.2.8) GASTROINTESTINAL
    A) Ingestion results in abdominal pain.
    0.2.9) HEPATIC
    A) Increases in serum hepatic enzyme activity, hyperlipemia, degreased hepatic glutathione, centrilobular hepatic necrosis and hepatic angiosarcoma have been reported in laboratory animals.
    0.2.10) GENITOURINARY
    A) Renal dysfunction may be seen with chronic inhalation. Renal damage and renal adenocarcinoma have been reported in laboratory animals.
    0.2.14) DERMATOLOGIC
    A) Vinylidene chloride is irritating to skin after exposure of a few minutes, and can produce erythema and burns. Solutions containing MEHQ may cause considerable irritation or leukoderma.
    0.2.20) REPRODUCTIVE
    A) At the time of this review, no studies were found on the potential reproductive hazards of vinylidene chloride in humans. Overall, studies of laboratory animals have shown little if any teratogenicity for vinylidene chloride.
    0.2.21) CARCINOGENICITY
    A) Vinylidene chloride is considered by most sources to be not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. No excess cancers were found in one study of vinylidene chloride workers.

Laboratory Monitoring

    A) Monitor renal and hepatic function tests after substantial exposure.

Treatment Overview

    0.4.2) ORAL/PARENTERAL EXPOSURE
    A) EMESIS - NOT recommended because of the potential for CNS depression and local tissue irritation.
    B) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL: Administer charcoal as a slurry (240 mL water/30 g charcoal). Usual dose: 25 to 100 g in adults/adolescents, 25 to 50 g in children (1 to 12 years), and 1 g/kg in infants less than 1 year old.
    C) There is no specific treatment for vinylidene chloride intoxication. If significant amounts have been ingested, the patient needs to be monitored for liver and kidney failure. Such cases have not been reported in the literature to date.
    0.4.3) INHALATION EXPOSURE
    A) INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
    0.4.4) EYE EXPOSURE
    A) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.
    0.4.5) DERMAL EXPOSURE
    A) OVERVIEW
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).

Range Of Toxicity

    A) The 2001 ACGIH TLV is 5 ppm.
    B) A human study of 138 employees exposed to 5 to 20 ppm TWA showed no changes in mortality or health parameters.

Clinical Effects

Heent

    3.4.1) SUMMARY
    A) Vinylidene chloride is irritating to the eyes, nose and throat, and may cause conjunctivitis, transient corneal injury and iritis with eye exposure. Solutions containing the inhibitor MEHQ may cause serious eye injury.
    3.4.3) EYES
    A) CONJUNCTIVITIS - Vinylidene chloride is irritating to the eyes and may cause erythema, pain, conjunctivitis and transient corneal injury and iritis, but seldom causes permanent injury. Solutions containing the inhibitor MEHQ (Mono Methyl Ether Hydroquinone; CAS 150-76-5) may cause serious eye injury (Baxter et al, 2000; ILO, 1998; Bingham et al, 2001).
    3.4.5) NOSE
    A) IRRITATION - Vinylidene chloride is irritating to the nose (ILO, 1998).
    3.4.6) THROAT
    A) IRRITATION - Vinylidene chloride is irritating to the throat (ILO, 1998).

Respiratory

    3.6.1) SUMMARY
    A) Vinylidene chloride is irritating to the upper respiratory tract and lungs.
    3.6.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Vinylidene chloride is irritating to the upper respiratory tract and lungs, producing inflammation of the mucous membranes (Baxter et al, 2000; Haley, 1975; Hathaway et al, 1996).
    3.6.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) PATHOLOGIC FINDINGS
    a) RATS given 100 to 200 mg/kg developed unusual histologic changes in the Clara cells and bronchiolar epithelium (Bingham et al, 2001).
    b) This finding seems to be due to in situ production of the 1,2-epoxide in Clara cells (Dowsley, 1991; (Forkert, 2001).

Neurologic

    3.7.1) SUMMARY
    A) Inhaled vinylidene chloride can result in central nervous system depression, with dizziness, drowsiness, symptoms of inebriation, and possibly unconsciousness. The extent of the depression is related to the concentration inhaled. Trigeminal nerve neuropathy has been reported.
    3.7.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEFICIT
    1) Inhalation of vinylidene chloride can result in central nervous system depression, with accompanying dizziness and drowsiness. The extent of the depression is related to the concentration inhaled (ACGIH, 1991; Haley, 1975; ILO, 1998). Concentrations of 4,000 ppm lead to symptoms similar to inebriation and may proceed to unconsciousness if the exposure continues (ACGIH, 1991; Irish, 1963).
    B) NEUROPATHY
    1) Exposure to vinylidene chloride reportedly resulted, within 8 to 30 hours, in irreversible lesions of the trigeminal nerve. This resulted in a loss of sensation to the face, mouth and tongue, and motor weakness of the jaw, eye and tongue muscles. The actual toxic substances may have been mono- or dichloracetylene that occurred during the production or storage of vinylidene chloride copolymer (Haley, 1975).

Gastrointestinal

    3.8.1) SUMMARY
    A) Ingestion results in abdominal pain.
    3.8.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) ABDOMINAL PAIN
    1) Abdominal pain is the result of vinylidene chloride ingestion (ILO, 1998).

Hepatic

    3.9.1) SUMMARY
    A) Increases in serum hepatic enzyme activity, hyperlipemia, degreased hepatic glutathione, centrilobular hepatic necrosis and hepatic angiosarcoma have been reported in laboratory animals.
    3.9.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) HEPATIC ENZYMES INCREASED
    a) RATS - Oral administration of 2 mg/kg of vinylidene chloride to rats resulted in elevated alkaline phosphatase. Inhalation did NOT induce these changes. Chronic inhalation in man may cause liver dysfunction (Haley, 1975).
    b) Vinylidene chloride decreases hepatic glucose-6-phosphatase activity, and increases serum alanine alpha-ketoglutarate transaminase activity (Hathaway et al, 1996).
    c) The liver is considered a principal target of vinylidene chloride toxicity in animals (Hathaway et al, 1996).
    d) Another report indicates that both inhalation and oral exposure result in increased serum enzyme markers of liver dysfunction and induction of hepatic enzymes in rats (Hathaway et al, 1996).
    2) HYPERLIPEMIA
    a) Hepatic glutathione content may be decreased; hepatic triglycerides may be elevated (Hathaway et al, 1996).
    3) HEPATIC CARCINOMA
    a) Hepatic angiosarcoma has been seen in rodents (Bahlman et al, 1979).
    4) HEPATIC NECROSIS
    a) High doses can result in hemorrhagic centrilobular necrosis in laboratory animals; rats have demostrated centrilobular vacuolization, swelling, degeneration and necrosis (ACGIH, 1991; Hathaway et al, 1996).

Genitourinary

    3.10.1) SUMMARY
    A) Renal dysfunction may be seen with chronic inhalation. Renal damage and renal adenocarcinoma have been reported in laboratory animals.
    3.10.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) ABNORMAL RENAL FUNCTION
    1) Renal dysfunction may be seen with chronic inhalation (Haley, 1975).
    3.10.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) RENAL CARCINOMA
    a) Renal adenocarcinoma has been induced in rodents (Finkel, 1983).
    2) RENAL TUBULAR SWELLING
    a) Kidney damage, such as enzyme changes, hemoglobinuria, tubular swelling, degeneration and necrosis, can result in lab animals exposed to high doses (ACGIH, 1991; Hathaway et al, 1996).

Dermatologic

    3.14.1) SUMMARY
    A) Vinylidene chloride is irritating to skin after exposure of a few minutes, and can produce erythema and burns. Solutions containing MEHQ may cause considerable irritation or leukoderma.
    3.14.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) SKIN IRRITATION
    1) Liquid vinylidene chloride is irritating to the skin, and exposure can result in erythema and burns (Baxter et al, 2000; ILO, 1998).
    B) VITILIGO
    1) Vinylidene chloride may contain the inhibitor MEHQ (monomethyl ether of hydroquinone). MEHQ may cause occupational leukoderma of the forearms and head (Chivers, 1972).
    C) BURN OF SKIN
    1) If a solution containing the inhibitor MEHQ is allowed to evaporate, the increased concentration of the phenolic MEHQ may cause skin burns and depigmentation (Bingham et al, 2001).
    3.14.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) IRRITATION
    a) Vinylidene chloride is irritating to rabbit skin after exposure of a few minutes (Bingham et al, 2001; Haley, 1975).

Reproductive

    3.20.1) SUMMARY
    A) At the time of this review, no studies were found on the potential reproductive hazards of vinylidene chloride in humans. Overall, studies of laboratory animals have shown little if any teratogenicity for vinylidene chloride.
    3.20.2) TERATOGENICITY
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) LACK OF EFFECT
    a) Negative results were found for teratogenicity in mice, rats and rabbits (Schardein, 2000). However, vinylidene chloride is considered a weak teratogen by some sources (Bingham et al, 2001).
    b) No teratogenic effects were found in rats and rabbits exposed by inhalation, although "toxicity to dams and embryos" was noted (ACGIH, 1991). At levels below those causing maternal toxicity, no embryonic or fetal effects were found in rats and rabbits (Bingham et al, 2001).
    c) Animal tests done on mice found vinylidene chloride to be a very weak teratogen. Data do not substantiate significant teratogenicity in rats, mice or rabbits due to this compound (Torkelson & Rowe, 1981).
    2) CONGENITAL ANOMALY
    a) Musculoskeletal developmental abnormalities occurred in fetuses of female rats exposed by inhalation to 80 ppm for 7 hours on days 6 to 15 of pregnancy (RTECS , 2002). Skeletal defects were noted in the offspring of pregnant rats, rabbits and mice exposed prenatally to 15 to 450 ppm through drinking water, but maternal toxicity also occurred. However, one maternal drinking water exposure study did not find adverse reproductive effects (Hathaway et al, 1996).
    3.20.3) EFFECTS IN PREGNANCY
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) FETOTOXICITY
    a) Experiments on rats and rabbits produced both fetotoxic and embryotoxic effects at levels resulting in toxic maternal effects. These included delayed ossification, wavy ribs and resorption in rabbits (Bingham et al, 2001). The adverse effects on embryo and fetus were secondary to maternal toxicity (Barlow & Sullivan, 1982).
    b) Vinylidene chloride was considered fetotoxic (stunted fetus) in female rats exposed orally to 200 mg/kg on days 6 to 15 of pregnancy (Lewis, 2000; RTECS , 2002).
    2) DEATH
    a) Post-implantation mortality resulted from exposure of female rabbits to 160 ppm for 7 hours on days 6 to 15 of pregnancy (RTECS , 2002).
    3.20.5) FERTILITY
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) FERTILITY DECREASED FEMALE
    a) Vinylidene chloride affected the fertility of female rats exposed orally to 200 mg/kg on days 6 to 15 of pregnancy (Lewis, 2000; RTECS , 2002). It also had effects on fertility in female rats exposed by inhalation to 55 ppm for 6 hours (RTECS , 2002).

Carcinogenicity

    3.21.1) IARC CATEGORY
    A) IARC Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS75-35-4 (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004):
    1) IARC Classification
    a) Listed as: Vinylidene chloride
    b) Carcinogen Rating: 3
    1) The agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category.
    3.21.2) SUMMARY/HUMAN
    A) Vinylidene chloride is considered by most sources to be not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. No excess cancers were found in one study of vinylidene chloride workers.
    3.21.3) HUMAN STUDIES
    A) CARCINOMA
    1) Vinylidene chloride is categorized by IARC as Group 3 (not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans), based on inadequate evidence in humans and limited evidence in animals (IARC , 1999).
    2) ACGIH considers vinylidene chloride as category A4 (not classifiable as a human carcinogen )(ACGIH, 2001). RTECS has classified it as an equivocal tumorigenic agent (RTECS , 2002). NIOSH regards vinylidene chloride as a potential occupational carcinogen (HSDB , 2002). The US EPA has classified it in Group C (possible human carcinogen), based on inadequate data in humans and limited evidence in animals (IRIS, 2002).
    3) In an epidemiological study of 138 vinylidene chloride workers with incomplete follow-up, no excess cancers were found (Hathaway et al, 1996) HSDB, 1997; (Ott et al, 1976).
    3.21.4) ANIMAL STUDIES
    A) CARCINOMA
    1) Most studies have found no increase in tumors in laboratory animals (ACGIH, 1991; Bingham et al, 2001). Some sources believe animal studies have been inconclusive and results have not indicated a strong potential for carcinogenicity (Torkelson & Rowe, 1981).
    2) However, renal adenocarcinomas, hepatic hemangiosarcomas, bronchoalveolar adenomas, mammary carcinomas and mesenteric lymph node and subcutaneous hemangiosarcomas have been noted (ACGIH, 1991; Bahlman et al, 1979; Finkel, 1983; Hathaway et al, 1996; HSDB , 2002; IARC , 1999). Blood, liver, kidney, gastrointestinal, respiratory and skin tumors have also been reported (RTECS , 2002).
    3) Studies of tumors in animal experiments with vinylidene chloride indicate that the effects may be the result of cellular injury, not associated with a genotoxic effect (ACGIH, 1991).

Genotoxicity

    A) Vinylidene chloride has produced both positive and negative results in genotoxicity studies.

Summary Of Exposure

    A) Vinylidene chloride is toxic by ingestion, inhalation and intravenous exposure routes. It is irritating to the eyes, skin, respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract.
    B) Signs and symptoms of exposure may include dizziness, drowsiness, headache, dyspnea and pneumonitis. Exposure to high concentrations can produce central nervous system depression and unconsciousness. Hepatic and renal dysfunction may result from chronic exposure. Eye contact may cause conjunctivitis and transient corneal injury.
    C) It is considered a potential carcinogen and mutagen.

Laboratory Monitoring

Monitoring Parameters Levels

    4.1.1) SUMMARY
    A) Monitor renal and hepatic function tests after substantial exposure.

Methods

    A) MULTIPLE ANALYTICAL METHODS
    1) Vinylidene chloride has been analyzed via gas chromatography, thermal conductivity, helium ionization and quench ionization.
    2) The purge-and-trap gas chromatography/mass spectrometry method has been adapted for analysis of vinylidene chloride in body tissue, with a limit of detection of 10 mcg/kg (HSDB , 2002).

Treatment

Life Support

    A) Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

Monitoring

    A) Monitor renal and hepatic function tests after substantial exposure.

Oral Exposure

    6.5.2) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION
    A) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL
    1) CHARCOAL ADMINISTRATION
    a) Consider administration of activated charcoal after a potentially toxic ingestion (Chyka et al, 2005). Administer charcoal as an aqueous slurry; most effective when administered within one hour of ingestion.
    2) CHARCOAL DOSE
    a) Use a minimum of 240 milliliters of water per 30 grams charcoal (FDA, 1985). Optimum dose not established; usual dose is 25 to 100 grams in adults and adolescents; 25 to 50 grams in children aged 1 to 12 years (or 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram body weight) ; and 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram in infants up to 1 year old (Chyka et al, 2005).
    1) Routine use of a cathartic with activated charcoal is NOT recommended as there is no evidence that cathartics reduce drug absorption and cathartics are known to cause adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, electrolyte imbalances and occasionally hypotension (None Listed, 2004).
    b) ADVERSE EFFECTS/CONTRAINDICATIONS
    1) Complications: emesis, aspiration (Chyka et al, 2005). Aspiration may be complicated by acute respiratory failure, ARDS, bronchiolitis obliterans or chronic lung disease (Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002; Pollack et al, 1981; Harris & Filandrinos, 1993; Elliot et al, 1989; Rau et al, 1988; Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002). Refer to the ACTIVATED CHARCOAL/TREATMENT management for further information.
    2) Contraindications: unprotected airway (increases risk/severity of aspiration) , nonfunctioning gastrointestinal tract, uncontrolled vomiting, and ingestion of most hydrocarbons (Chyka et al, 2005).
    6.5.3) TREATMENT
    A) SUPPORT
    1) There is no specific treatment for vinylidene chloride intoxication. If significant amounts have been ingested, the patient needs to monitored in a facility capable of handling liver or kidney failure. Such cases have not been reported in the literature to date.
    B) EXPERIMENTAL THERAPY
    1) GLUTATHIONE has had a protective effect on livers of rats treated with vinylidene chloride (Jaeger et al, 1972) Jaegar et al, 1974). This has not been tried on primates or humans.
    2) DISULFIRAM decreased the lethal and hepatotoxic effects of vinylidene chloride in animals (Short et al, 1977). This treatment has not been tried in either primates or humans.

Inhalation Exposure

    6.7.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) Move patient from the toxic environment to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty in breathing develops, evaluate for hypoxia, respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis.
    B) OBSERVATION: Carefully observe patients with inhalation exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    C) INITIAL TREATMENT: Administer 100% humidified supplemental oxygen, perform endotracheal intubation and provide assisted ventilation as required. Administer inhaled beta-2 adrenergic agonists, if bronchospasm develops. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm (National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute, 2007). Exposed skin and eyes should be flushed with copious amounts of water.

Eye Exposure

    6.8.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) EYE IRRIGATION, ROUTINE: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, an ophthalmologic examination should be performed (Peate, 2007; Naradzay & Barish, 2006).
    B) Washing with water usually counteracts the injurious actions of vinylidene chloride (Haley, 1975). Special care must be taken if the vinylidene chloride has been inhibited with MEHQ, since this substance may cause more severe eye injury (Torkelson & Rowe, 1981).
    6.8.2) TREATMENT
    A) OPHTHALMIC EXAMINATION AND EVALUATION
    1) TREATMENT - An ophthalmic examination should be performed if irritation or pain persists after 15 minutes of irrigation with water.
    B) Treatment should include recommendations listed in the ORAL EXPOSURE section when appropriate.

Dermal Exposure

    6.9.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) DERMAL DECONTAMINATION
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and wash exposed area thoroughly with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
    6.9.2) TREATMENT
    A) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Based on animal studies, this material may be irritating to the skin if left in contact for even a few minutes (Haley, 1975).
    2) A physician may need to examine the exposed area if irritation or pain persists after the area is washed.
    B) Treatment should include recommendations listed in the ORAL EXPOSURE section when appropriate.

Range Of Toxicity

Summary

    A) The 2001 ACGIH TLV is 5 ppm.
    B) A human study of 138 employees exposed to 5 to 20 ppm TWA showed no changes in mortality or health parameters.

Minimum Lethal Exposure

    A) The minimum lethal human dose to this agent has not been delineated.

Maximum Tolerated Exposure

    A) The relationship of toxicity to human exposure concentrations is unclear (Torkelson & Rowe, 1981). A human study of 138 employees exposed to 5 to 20 ppm TWA showed no changes in mortality or health parameters (Bingham et al, 2001).
    B) Exposure to 4,000 ppm of the compound results in central nervous system depression followed by symptoms of drunkenness and then unconsciousness. When removed from exposure to the substance, individuals tend to recover completely (Baxter et al, 2000; Hathaway et al, 1996).

Workplace Standards

    A) ACGIH TLV Values for CAS75-35-4 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):
    1) Editor's Note: The listed values are recommendations or guidelines developed by ACGIH(R) to assist in the control of health hazards. They should only be used, interpreted and applied by individuals trained in industrial hygiene. Before applying these values, it is imperative to read the introduction to each section in the current TLVs(R) and BEI(R) Book and become familiar with the constraints and limitations to their use. Always consult the Documentation of the TLVs(R) and BEIs(R) before applying these recommendations and guidelines.
    a) Adopted Value
    1) Vinylidene chloride
    a) TLV:
    1) TLV-TWA: 5 ppm
    2) TLV-STEL:
    3) TLV-Ceiling:
    b) Notations and Endnotes:
    1) Carcinogenicity Category: A4
    2) Codes: Not Listed
    3) Definitions:
    a) A4: Not Classifiable as a Human Carcinogen: Agents which cause concern that they could be carcinogenic for humans but which cannot be assessed conclusively because of a lack of data. In vitro or animal studies do not provide indications of carcinogenicity which are sufficient to classify the agent into one of the other categories.
    c) TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): Liver and kidney dam
    d) Molecular Weight: 96.95
    1) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3):
    a) [(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45
    2) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm:
    a) [(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance
    e) Additional information:

    B) NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS75-35-4 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):
    1) Listed as: Vinylidene chloride
    2) REL:
    a) TWA:
    b) STEL:
    c) Ceiling:
    d) Carcinogen Listing: (Ca) NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards).
    e) Skin Designation: Not Listed
    f) Note(s): See Appendix A
    3) IDLH: Not Listed

    C) Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS75-35-4 :
    1) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A4 ; Listed as: Vinylidene chloride
    a) A4 :Not Classifiable as a Human Carcinogen: Agents which cause concern that they could be carcinogenic for humans but which cannot be assessed conclusively because of a lack of data. In vitro or animal studies do not provide indications of carcinogenicity which are sufficient to classify the agent into one of the other categories.
    2) EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): C ; Listed as: 1,1-Dichloroethylene (1,1-DCE)
    a) C : Possible human carcinogen.
    3) IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): 3 ; Listed as: Vinylidene chloride
    a) 3 : The agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category.
    4) NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Ca ; Listed as: Vinylidene chloride
    a) Ca : NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards).
    5) MAK (DFG, 2002): Category 3B ; Listed as: Vinylidene chloride
    a) Category 3B : Substances for which in vitro or animal studies have yielded evidence of carcinogenic effects that is not sufficient for classification of the substance in one of the other categories. Further studies are required before a final decision can be made. A MAK value can be established provided no genotoxic effects have been detected. (Footnote: In the past, when a substance was classified as Category 3 it was given a MAK value provided that it had no detectable genotoxic effects. When all such substances have been examined for whether or not they may be classified in Category 4, this sentence may be omitted.)
    6) NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): Not Listed

    D) OSHA PEL Values for CAS75-35-4 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):
    1) Not Listed

Toxicity Information

    7.7.1) TOXICITY VALUES
    A) References: HSDB, 2002 Lewis, 2000 RTECS, 2002
    1) LD50- (ORAL)MOUSE:
    a) 194 mg/kg
    b) 200 mg/kg (approximate) (HSDB, 2002)
    2) LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
    a) 200 mg/kg
    b) 1500 mg/kg (HSDB, 2002)
    c) adrenalectomized, 80 mg/kg (HSDB, 2002)
    3) TCLo- (INHALATION)HUMAN:
    a) 25 ppm -- general anesthetic; changes to liver, kidney, ureter and bladder
    4) TCLo- (INHALATION)MOUSE:
    a) 25 ppm for 4H/52W intermittent -- carcinogenic; kidney tumors; leukemia
    5) TCLo- (INHALATION)RAT:
    a) 55 ppm for 6H at 52W intermittent (Lewis, 2000)
    b) Female, 55 ppm for 6H at 55D prior to mating -- effects on fertility
    c) Female, 80 ppm for 7H at 6-15D of pregnancy -- musculoskeletal developmental abnormalities
    d) 189 mg/m(3) for 90D continuous -- fatty liver degeneration; renal tubule changes; phosphatase effects

Physicochemical

Physical Characteristics

    A) Vinylidene chloride is a clear, colorless mobile and volatile liquid with a mild, sweet odor resembling chloroform (Ashford, 1994; Budavari, 1996; Lewis, 2000) NIOSH, 2002).
    B) At temperatures above 89 degrees F, the compound exists as a gas (NIOSH , 2000).

Molecular Weight

    A) 96.95

Other

    A) ODOR THRESHOLD
    1) 190-500 ppm (ACGIH, 1991; Bingham et al, 2001)
    2) Odor is detectable by some at 500 ppm
    3) At 1,000 ppm, there is a mild, definite odor (sweet smell)
    4) Vapors with decontamination products are detectable well below 500 ppm (disagreeable odor)

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