VINYL CHLORIDE

Vinyl chloride is used to make plastics, adhesives, as a raw material, mainly (98%) in the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) resins, and in the production of vinyl chloride and vinyl acetate copolymers. Because PVC is one of the most energy-efficient materials, it is used to make a wide variety of end-use products such as automotive parts and accessories, furniture, packaging materials, pipes, wall coverings, and wire coatings. Vinyl chloride has also been used as an aerosol propellant (AAR, 1998; ACGIH, 1992; ATSDR, 1997; Baselt, 2000; Baxter et al, 2000; Bingham et al, 2001; Budavari, 2000a; CGA, 1999a; IPCS, 1999b; Lewis, 1997; Lewis, 1998).
"The use of vinyl chloride as an aerosol propellant, refrigerant, or a component of pharmaceuticals or cosmetics was banned in the US in 1974" (ACGIH, 1992).
PVC is found in a variety of hospital products including:

intravenous (IV) bags and tubing
umbilical artery catheters
blood bags and infusion tubing
enteral nutrition feeding bags
nasogastric tubes
peritoneal dialysis bags and tubing
tubing used in cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) procedures
tubing used in extracorporeal membrane oxygenation
tubing used during hemodialysis

FORMS

The technical grade of vinyl chloride is of 99.9 mole percent purity in the liquid phase (CGA, 1999a; Lewis, 1997) or 99.9 percent by weight since the 1960s (IPCS, 1999a).
The commercial grade contains 1 to 2 percent of impurities (HSDB, 2001).
IMPURITIES:

Water (at maximum of 120 mg/kg), hydrochloric acid (at maximum of 1 mg/kg), and acetylene (1-10 mg/kg) can be present as impurities (CGA, 1999a; IPCS, 1999a).
Dioxins can be formed as contaminants (IPCS, 1999a).
Other impurities include (HSDB, 2001; IPCS, 1999a):
- acetaldehyde
- 1,3-butadiene
- butane
- butene
- 1-butyne-3-ene (vinyl acetylene)
- chloroethane
- chlorophene
- chloromethane
- diacetylene
- 1,2-dichloroethane ethene (ethylene)
- hydrogen peroxide
- methyl chloride
- propadiene (allene)
- propene
- propine
- vinyl acetylene

ADDITIVES, sometimes added as stablizers (HSDB, 2001):

Hydroquinone
butyl catechol
phenol

SOURCES

Vinyl chloride is produced by the dehydrochloronation of ethylene dichloride with alcoholic potassium, by the halogenation of ethylene, and by the addition reaction of acetylene and anhydrous hydrogen chloride (Ashford, 1994; Budavari, 2000a; CGA, 1999; Lewis, 1997).
Vinyl chloride is one component of cigarette smoke (ACGIH, 1992).
Although job-related exposure is usually through inhalation and dermal contact, non-occupational exposure is through drinking water and consumer products (Lewis, 1998).

-CLINICAL EFFECTS

GENERAL CLINICAL EFFECTS

SUMMARY: In acute exposure, deaths are most often due to CNS and respiratory depression. The primary toxic hazard is exposure to vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) gas rather than to poly vinyl chloride (PVC) products (except during pyrolysis). There may be a long latent period between exposure and symptom onset.

ACUTE: The nervous system is the primary target of acute vinyl chloride exposure. Signs and symptoms following ingestion include weakness; ataxia; inebriation; headache; fatigue; numbness; tingling and pallor or cyanosis of the extremities; nausea; abdominal pain; GI bleeding; visual disturbances; cardiac dysrhythmias; narcosis and death. Vinyl chloride is a severe irritant of the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes.

CHRONIC: Enhanced collagen deposition and thickening of the subepidermal layer of the skin, Raynaud's phenomenon, hepatomegaly, hepatic fibrosis, splenomegaly, thrombocytopenia, sensory-motor polyneuropathy, trigeminal sensory neuropathy, minor pyramidal signs, cerebellar and extrapyramidal motor disorders, degenerative bone changes, and acro-osteolysis may occur with chronic exposure to vinyl chloride. Vinyl chloride is a known human carcinogen and has caused angiosarcoma of the liver in heavily exposed workers.

DERMAL: Direct contact with liquid vinyl chloride or escaping gas can cause frostbite injury.

INHALATION: Inhalation may cause CNS and respiratory depression and seizures.

POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)

Vapors may cause dizziness or asphyxiation without warning.
Some may be toxic if inhaled at high concentrations.
Contact with gas or liquefied gas may cause burns, severe injury and/or frostbite.
Fire may produce irritating and/or toxic gases.

ACUTE CLINICAL EFFECTS

With an acute oral LD50 of 500 mg/kg in rats, the acute toxicity of VCM is relatively low (RTECS , 1996) (ACGIH, 1992).

VCM is absorbed via inhalation or by dermal exposure. As this substance is a gas at room temperature, ingestion of VCM is unlikely; the most common route of exposure is inhalation (Finkel, 1983) (ACGIH, 1992)(Clayton & Clayton, 1994).

The vapors are moderately irritating to the eyes. A single instance of human corneal injury was reported, which healed completely in 48 hours (Grant, 1986). VCM is a skin irritant (Schwartz et al, 1957).

The nervous system is the primary target of acute vinyl chloride toxicity (ATSDR, 1990). Exposure to airborne concentrations greater than 800 to 1,000 ppm can produce headache, dizziness, ataxia, inebriation, euphoria, fatigue, numbness and tingling of the extremities, drowsiness, and visual disturbances (ATSDR, 1989) (ACGIH, 1992)(HSDB , 1996). VCM has narcotic properties and may cause unconsciousness in concentrations of 10,000 to 20,000 ppm (Walker, 1981; Hathaway et al, 1991). Seizures may occur in deep anesthesia induced with VCM (Danziger, 1960).

There have been two human fatalities from acute VCM exposure to airborne levels estimated to be greater than 100,000 ppm; deaths were from respiratory failure (CCOHS, 1988). Death is most often due to CNS and respiratory depression. There may be a long latent period between exposure and symptom onset.

Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain, sometimes intense enough to mimic an acute surgical abdomen, may follow ingestion of the liquid (HSDB , 1996). Hematemesis may occur following ingestion (HSDB , 1996).

In animal studies, VCM lowered the myocardial threshold of dog hearts to epinephrine-induced arrhythmias (Jucker, 1974). Ventricular fibrillation may be a cause of sudden death following acute exposure (HSDB , 1996). This has not been reported in humans, however. Decreased myocardial contractility is associated with anesthetic doses in animals (Belej et al, 1974).

Direct contact with the liquid or escaping compressed gas can cause frostbite and/or mechanical injury (ACGIH, 1992).

In a study of human volunteers, 42% of an inhaled dose was retained in the lungs, regardless of the exposure concentration (HSDB , 1996). As much as 12% is excreted in the breath unchanged at concentrations of 1000 ppm, while only 2% is excreted unchanged in the breath with inhalation exposure to 10 ppm (Baselt, 1982). Pulmonary elimination followed first order kinetics, with half-lives of 20.4 and 22.4 minutes with inhalation exposure to 10 and 1000 ppm, respectively (HSDB , 1996).

VCM is distributed throughout the body by lipids or lipoproteins. The highest concentrations are in the liver and kidneys, followed by the lungs, spleen, and small intestine (ATSDR, 1989).

In concentrations less than 50 ppm, VCM is metabolized by the alcohol dehydrogenase system. At 50 to 250 ppm, oxidation occurs by the perioxidase-catalase system (Haddad, 1998). At higher levels, the mixed function oxidase system is the major metabolic route.

Vinyl chloride is metabolized via cytochrome P450 CYP2E1 to form chloroethylene chloride, which is DNA-reactive (Whysner et al, 1996). The primary route of metabolism is: VCM to chloroethylene oxide, which spontaneously reorganizes itself to chloroacetaldehyde, and which is further oxidized to monochloroacetic acid or converted to chloroethanol. Monochloroacetic acid is only seen with exposure to high concentrations (Tamburro, 1978).

CHRONIC CLINICAL EFFECTS

Allergic contact dermatitis has been associated with exposure to vinyl chloride, but may be due to plasticizers and other additives (Schwartz et al, 1957). Dermatitis occurs in approximately 4.4% of persons with chronic exposure (ACGIH, 1992).

Fatigue and paresthesias have been reported after chronic exposure (Barlow & Sullivan, 1982). Workers chronically exposed to airborne concentrations of less than 50 ppm have developed axonal peripheral neuropathy (ATSDR, 1989). EEG changes have been seen in VCM workers (ATSDR, 1989; HSDB , 1996).

A main target organ in chronic exposures is the liver. Direct hepatotoxicity and hepatomegaly are the main noncarcinogenic effects; splenomegaly has also been reported (Walker, 1981).

Hepatic damage ranges from proliferation of hepatocytes and sinusoidal cells to hepatic angiosarcoma (Harbison, 1998; ATSDR, 1985). Cirrhosis is generally not observed (Popper et al, 1981). The most characteristic effect of long-term exposure to vinyl chloride is induction of the otherwise rare liver tumor, hemangiosarcoma (Harbison, 1998).

Hepatotoxicity is generally seen after several months or years of exposure to higher VCM concentrations, in the range of 500 to 1000 ppm (ATSDR, 1989). Pathologic porphyrinuria, especially secondary to coproporphyrinuria, is a consistent pathological finding, following chronic exposure, for the recognition of VCM-induced hepatocellular toxicity (Doss et al, 1984).

Chronic exposure can result in VINYL CHLORIDE DISEASE. A total of 25 cases have been reported (Hathaway et al, 1996). Vinyl chloride disease is characterized by a scleroderma-like condition of the connective tissues of the fingers, Reynaud's phenomenon followed by acro-osteolysis, liver damage, and sometimes hematologic changes and pulmonary effects. ACRO-OSTEOLYSIS involves lytic lesions of the bones; there is a 3 to 5% incidence of this condition in workers who clean PVC reaction chambers (Walker, 1981). Other authors have found a prevalence rate of 2 to 3 percent (Kemp et al, 1986).

Vinyl chloride disease develops after 1 month to 3 years of exposure, and is reversible after exposure ceases. Wide-field capillary microscopy detected abnormalities in 48 of 152 (31.6%) of VCM workers' hands, and only 3 of 50 (6%) of hands in nonexposed manual workers (Maricq et al, 1976).

Occupational exposure to high VCM concentrations has been loosely associated with impaired pulmonary function, as measured by carbon monoxide diffusing capacity (TLCO) (Lloyd et al, 1984). "MEAT-WRAPPER'S ASTHMA" occurs in supermarket workers who heat-cut PVC wrap used in wrapping meat, liberating VCM and HYDROGEN CHLORIDE (Anderson, 1974; Stevens, 1974). Meat wrapper's asthma occurs following exposure to PVC pyrolysis products (and possibly to plasticizers) (Falk & Portnoy, 1976). Occupational asthma caused by heat-cutting PVC wrap may be due to release of phthalic anhydrides, not PVC. The actual cause is uncertain.

Vinyl chloride is thought to cause chronic interstitial pulmonary changes, distinct from those of pneumoconiosis. PVC polymer dust has also been implicated in causing pneumoconiosis (Wagoner, 1983; Cordasco et al, 1980; Soutar, 1980; Mastrangelo, 1981). Chronic exposure may cause pneumoconiosis (Haddad, 1998). An increased risk of lung cancer (large cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas) has been observed in epidemiological studies (Haddad et al, 1996).

-MEDICAL TREATMENT

LIFE SUPPORT

Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

SUMMARY

FIRST AID - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)

Move victim to fresh air.
Call 911 or emergency medical service.
Give artificial respiration if victim is not breathing.
Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult.
Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes.
In case of contact with liquefied gas, thaw frosted parts with lukewarm water.
In case of burns, immediately cool affected skin for as long as possible with cold water. Do not remove clothing if adhering to skin.
Keep victim warm and quiet.
Ensure that medical personnel are aware of the material(s) involved and take precautions to protect themselves.

FIRST AID

FIRST AID

EYE EXPOSURE - If eye tissue is frozen, seek medical attention immediately; if tissue is not frozen, immediately and thoroughly flush the eyes with large amounts of water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally lifting the lower and upper eyelids. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist, get medical attention as soon as possible.

Primary eye protection (spectacles or goggles), as defined by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), should be used when working with this chemical. Face shields should only be worn over primary eye protection. Contact lens use is not recommended when working with this chemical. If contact lenses are worn, then appropriate eye and face protection devices must be used. OSHA emphasizes that dusty and/or chemical environments may represent an additional hazard to contact lens wearers.

DERMAL EXPOSURE - If frostbite has occurred, seek medical attention immediately; do NOT rub the affected areas or flush them with water. In order to prevent further tissue damage, do NOT attempt to remove frozen clothing from frostbitten areas. If frostbite has NOT occurred, immediately and thoroughly wash contaminated skin with soap and water.
INHALATION EXPOSURE - Move the exposed person to fresh air at once. If breathing has stopped, perform artificial respiration. Keep the affected person warm and at rest. Get medical attention as soon as possible.
TARGET ORGANS - Liver, CNS, blood, respiratory system, and lymphatic system [liver cancer](National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007; Chemsoft(R) , 2000).

Vinyl chloride is classified as a confirmed human carcinogen by ACGIH, IARC, OSHA, and NIOSH. Rescuers should wear appropriate respiratory and dermal protective equipment and clothing to prevent self-contamination.
INHALATION EXPOSURE -

INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
Assure adequacy of respirations and oxygenation. Endotracheal intubation may be required if significant CNS or respiratory depression.
SEIZURES: Administer a benzodiazepine; DIAZEPAM (ADULT: 5 to 10 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 20 minutes as needed. CHILD: 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes; up to a maximum of 10 mg/dose. May repeat dose every 5 to 10 minutes as needed) or LORAZEPAM (ADULT: 2 to 4 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 10 minutes as needed, if seizures persist. CHILD: 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes, up to a maximum of 4 mg/dose; may repeat in 5 to 15 minutes as needed, if seizures continue).

Consider phenobarbital or propofol if seizures recur after diazepam 30 mg (adults) or 10 mg (children greater than 5 years).
Monitor for hypotension, dysrhythmias, respiratory depression, and need for endotracheal intubation. Evaluate for hypoglycemia, electrolyte disturbances, and hypoxia.

DERMAL EXPOSURE -

DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
If frostbite has occurred, DO NOT rub the affected areas, DO NOT flush affected areas with water, or attempt to remove clothing.
PREHOSPITAL

Rewarming of a localized area should only be considered if the risk of refreezing is unlikely. Avoid rubbing the frozen area which may cause further damage to the area (Grieve et al, 2011; Hallam et al, 2010).

REWARMING

Do not institute rewarming unless complete rewarming can be assured; refreezing thawed tissue increases tissue damage. Place affected area in a water bath with a temperature of 40 to 42 degrees Celsius for 15 to 30 minutes until thawing is complete. The bath should be large enough to permit complete immersion of the injured part, avoiding contact with the sides of the bath. A whirlpool bath would be ideal. Some authors suggest a mild antibacterial (ie, chlorhexidine, hexachlorophene or povidone-iodine) be added to the bath water. Tissues should be thoroughly rewarmed and pliable; the skin will appear a red-purple color (Grieve et al, 2011; Hallam et al, 2010; Murphy et al, 2000).
Correct systemic hypothermia which can cause cold diuresis due to suppression of antidiuretic hormone; consider IV fluids (Grieve et al, 2011).
Rewarming may be associated with increasing acute pain, requiring narcotic analgesics.
For severe frostbite, clinical trials have shown that pentoxifylline, a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, can enhance tissue viability by increasing blood flow and reducing platelet activity (Hallam et al, 2010).

WOUND CARE

Digits should be separated by sterile absorbent cotton; no constrictive dressings should be used. Protective dressings should be changed twice per day.
Perform twice daily hydrotherapy for 30 to 45 minutes in warm water at 40 degrees Celsius. This helps debride devitalized tissue and maintain range of motion. Keep the area warm and dry between treatments (Hallam et al, 2010; Murphy et al, 2000).
The injured extremities should be elevated and should not be allowed to bear weight.
In patients at risk for infection of necrotic tissue, prophylactic antibiotics and tetanus toxoid have been recommended by some authors (Hallam et al, 2010; Murphy et al, 2000).
Non-tense clear blisters should be left intact due to the risk of infection; tense or hemorrhagic blisters may be carefully aspirated in a setting where aseptic technique is provided (Hallam et al, 2010).
Further surgical debridement should be delayed until mummification demarcation has occurred (60 to 90 days). Spontaneous amputation may occur.
Analgesics may be required during the rewarming phase; however, patients with severe pain should be evaluated for vasospasm.
IMAGING: Arteriography and noninvasive vascular techniques (e.g., plain radiography, laser Doppler studies, digital plethysmography, infrared thermography, isotope scanning), have been useful in evaluating the extent of vasospasm after thawing and assessing whether debridement is needed (Hallam et al, 2010). In cases of severe frostbite, Technetium 99 (triple phase scanning) and MRI angiography have been shown to be the most useful to assess injury and determine the extent or need for surgical debridement (Hallam et al, 2010).
TOPICAL THERAPY: Topical aloe vera may decrease tissue destruction and should be applied every 6 hours (Murphy et al, 2000).
IBUPROFEN THERAPY: Ibuprofen, a thromboxane inhibitor, may help limit inflammatory damage and reduce tissue loss (Grieve et al, 2011; Murphy et al, 2000). DOSE: 400 mg orally every 12 hours is recommended (Hallam et al, 2010).
THROMBOLYTIC THERAPY: Thrombolysis (intra-arterial or intravenous thrombolytic agents) may be beneficial in those patients at risk to lose a digit or a limb, if done within the first 24 hours of exposure. The use of tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) to clear microvascular thromboses can restore arterial blood flow, but should be accompanied by close monitoring including angiography or technetium scanning to evaluate the injury and to evaluate the effects of t-PA administration. Potential risk of the procedure includes significant tissue edema that can lead to a rise in interstitial pressures resulting in compartment syndrome (Grieve et al, 2011).
CONTROVERSIAL: Adjunct pharmacological agents (ie, heparin, vasodilators, prostacyclins, prostaglandin synthetase inhibitors, dextran) are controversial and not routinely recommended. The role of hyperbaric oxygen therapy, sympathectomy remains unclear (Grieve et al, 2011).
CHRONIC PAIN: Vasomotor dysfunction can produce chronic pain. Amitriptyline has been used in some patients; some patients may need a referral for pain management. Inability to tolerate the cold (in the affected area) has been observed following a single episode of frostbite (Hallam et al, 2010).
MORBIDITIES: Frostbite can produce localized osteoporosis and possible bone loss following a severe case. These events may take a year or more to develop. Children may be at greater risk to develop more severe events (ie, early arthritis) (Hallam et al, 2010).

EYE EXPOSURE -

DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.
If frostbite injury of the eyes may have occurred from direct exposure to the liquified material or escaping compressed gas, DO NOT flush with water; early ophthalmologic consultation should be obtained.

ORAL EXPOSURE -

Ingestion is unlikely; however, oral exposure to escaping gas might cause frostbite injury to the upper gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts. Administer oxygen and maintain airway as clinically indicated.

-RANGE OF TOXICITY

MINIMUM LETHAL EXPOSURE

ADULT

Exposure to more than 120,000 ppm may be fatal in humans (ILO, 1983).
Two vinyl chloride workers died by asphyxiation due to breathing very high levels; concentration levels were not reported (ATSDR, 1997; Baselt, 2000a).

ANIMAL

In animal studies, brief exposure to 100,000 to 400,000 ppm was fatal in rats (ATSDR, 1997).

MAXIMUM TOLERATED EXPOSURE

ADULT

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE

Because vinyl chloride is a gas, the most typical route of exposure is inhalation. Occupational exposure to vinyl chloride has been associated with an increased incidence of angiosarcoma of the liver and other malignant tumors, acro-osteolysis, Raynaud syndrome, scleroderma, thrombocytopenia, circulatory disturbances and impaired liver function; very high concentrations cause central nervous system depression. It appears that metabolism of vinyl chloride is necessary before many of its toxic effects occur (Bingham et al, 2001a; Hathaway et al, 1996).
"The main route of occupational exposure is via inhalation, and occurs primarily in vinyl chloride or polyvinyl chloride plants" (IPCS, 1999b).
Inhalation studies in male human volunteers indicate that absorption was rapid; approximately 42 percent was absorbed. The percentage of VCM retained was independent of its concentration in inspired air (Zenz, 1994).
Absorption is rapid by oral exposure (Zenz, 1994).
Skin absorption is possible (Sittig, 1991).

CONCENTRATION LEVEL

Occupational exposure to vinyl chloride amounted to several thousands of mg/m(3) in the 1940s and 1950s, several hundreds of mg/m(3) in the 1960s and early 1970s, and 13 to 26 mg/m(3) in most countries in the late 1970s (IPCS, 1999b).
The reported effects of vinyl chloride have largely been due to the high exposure of workers prior to 1974 (IPCS, 1999a).
Early inhalational experiments on human subjects found vinyl chloride to cause CNS depression at 7% to 10% and to cause dangerous arrhythmias at 12 percent (Oster et al, 1947).
Humans exposed to 4000 ppm for 5 minutes reported no effects; 8000 ppm for 5 minutes reported some dizziness; and 20,000 ppm for 5 minutes reported dizziness, light-headedness, nausea, and dulling of vision and auditory cues (Hathaway et al, 1996).
One 3-minute inhalation exposure at 25,000 ppm was reported to cause confusion, headache, and dizziness (ACGIH, 1992).

ACUTE EXPOSURE

CASE SERIES/FIRST RESPONDERS: In 2012, a survey was conducted by the New Jersey Department of Health with the assistance of the CDC and ATSDR to assess the health effects associated with acute exposure of vinyl chloride by emergency responders (n=93) following a release from a train derailment. Of the self-reported symptoms, headache (26%) was a common adverse event. Upper respiratory symptoms (26%) (eg, runny nose, burning nose or throat and hoarseness) and lower respiratory symptoms (22%) (eg, shortness of breath, chest tightness, wheezing, and burning of chest) were also frequently reported. Other clinical events included coughing (15%), neurologic (14%) (ie, dizziness, weakness, and loss of balance), nausea and/or vomiting (14%), increased congestion (11%) and irritation, pain, or burning of the eyes (11%). Twenty-three percent of responders reported that they did not wear any type of personal protective equipment. Of note, air monitoring was not conducted following the release (Brinker et al, 2015).

CHRONIC EXPOSURE

Reportedly, workers exposed to chronic low concentrations of vinyl chloride showed degenerative bone changes, circulatory disturbances, thrombocytopenia, splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, hepatic fibrosis, and angiosarcoma of the liver (Baselt, 2000a).
Vinyl chloride disease has been reported when workers were exposed to several hundred parts per million for periods ranging from months to years. The effects are: enhanced collagen deposition and thickening of the subepidermal layer of the skin; Raynaud's phenomenon (arteriole constriction causing whitening of the fingers and numbness); and, in some cases, acro-osteolysis (resorption of the terminal phalanges) (Hathaway et al, 1996).

No new cases of vinyl chloride disease have been reported in the US since 1974, when occupational exposure levels were reduced (Hathaway et al, 1996).
Occupational exposure to vinyl chloride has also been associated with an increased incidence of scleroderma and impaired liver function; very high concentrations can cause central nervous system (CNS) depression (Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Hathaway et al, 1996).

Vinyl chloride together with carbon disulfide have been associated with loss of libido and diminished potency in occupationally exposed man. Women 41 to 50 years of age employed in polyvinyl chloride and acrylic glass manufacturing for 21 years or longer showed exposure-associated declines in sexual function without increase in miscarriages or abortions. Higher incidence of preeclampsia in pregnant workers have also been reported (Harbison, 1998).

Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS75-01-4 :

ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A1 ; Listed as: Vinyl chloride

A1 :Confirmed Human Carcinogen: The agent is carcinogenic to humans based on the weight of evidence from epidemiologic studies.

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): A ; Listed as: Vinyl chloride

A : Human Carcinogen.

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): A ; Listed as: Vinyl chloride

A : Human Carcinogen.

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): A ; Listed as: Vinyl chloride

A : Human Carcinogen.

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): A ; Listed as: Vinyl chloride

A : Human Carcinogen.

IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): 1 ; Listed as: Vinyl chloride

1 : The agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are carcinogenic to humans. This category is used when there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. Exceptionally, an agent (mixture) may be placed in this category when evidence of carcinogenicity in humans is less than sufficient but there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals and strong evidence in exposed humans that the agent (mixture) acts through a relevant mechanism of carcinogenicity.

NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Ca ; Listed as: Vinyl chloride

Ca : NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards).

MAK (DFG, 2002): Category 1 ; Listed as: Vinyl chloride

Category 1 : Substances that cause cancer in man and can be assumed to make a significant contribution to cancer risk. Epidemiological studies provide adequate evidence of a positive correlation between the exposure of humans and the occurence of cancer. Limited epidemiological data can be substantiated by evidence that the substance causes cancer by a mode of action that is relevant to man.

NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): Not Listed

TOXICITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT VALUES

EPA IRIS

EPA Risk Assessment Values for CAS75-01-4 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011):

Oral:

Slope Factor: 1.4per mg/kg-day (This represents multiple discrete slope factors for this substance.)
RfD: 3x10(-3) mg/kg-day

Inhalation:

Unit Risk: 8.8x10(-3) per mg/m3 (This represents multiple discrete air unit risks for this substance.)
RfC: 1x10(-1) mg/m3

Drinking Water:

Unit Risk: 4.2x10(-2) per mg/L (This represents multiple discrete drinking water unit risks for this substance.)

Oral:

Slope Factor: 1.5per mg/kg-day
RfD:

Inhalation:

Unit Risk: 8.8x10(-3) per mg/m3 (This represents multiple discrete air unit risks for this substance.)
RfC:

Drinking Water:

Unit Risk: 4.2x10(-2) per mg/L (This represents multiple discrete drinking water unit risks for this substance.)

Oral:

Slope Factor: 7.5x10(-1) per mg/kg-day (This represents multiple discrete slope factors for this substance.)
RfD:

Inhalation:

Unit Risk: 4.4x10(-3) per mg/m3 (This represents multiple discrete air unit risks for this substance.)
RfC:

Drinking Water:

Unit Risk: 2.1x10(-2) per mg/L (This represents multiple discrete drinking water unit risks for this substance.)

Oral:

Slope Factor: 7.2x10(-1) per mg/kg-day (This represents multiple discrete slope factors for this substance.)
RfD:

Inhalation:

Unit Risk: 4.4x10(-3) per mg/m3 (This represents multiple discrete air unit risks for this substance.)
RfC:

Drinking Water:

Unit Risk: 2.1x10(-2) per mg/L (This represents multiple discrete drinking water unit risks for this substance.)

TOXICITY VALUES

Budavari, 2000 IPCS, 1999b NTP, 1997; OHM/TADS, 2001; RTECS, 2001
- LC50- (INHALATION)GUINEA_PIG:
- LC50- (INHALATION)MOUSE:
- LC50- (INHALATION)RABBIT:
- LC50- (INHALATION)RAT:
- LCLo- (INHALATION)GUINEA_PIG:
- LCLo- (INHALATION)MOUSE:
- LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)HAMSTER:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)HUMAN:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)MOUSE:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)RABBIT:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)RAT:
- TCLo- (INTRAPERITONEAL)RAT:
- TD- (INTRAPERITONEAL)RAT:
- TDLo- (INTRAPERITONEAL)RAT:
- TDLo- (ORAL)RAT:
- TDLo- (SUBCUTANEOUS)RAT:

CALCULATIONS

AMBIENT CONVERSIONS

CONVERSION FACTORS

1 mg/m(3) = 0.39 ppm (Verschueren, 2000)

1 mg/L = 391 ppm (Clayton & Clayton, 1994)
1 ppm = 2.56 mg/m(3) (at 68 degrees F and 760 mmHg) (NIOSH , 2001);
1 ppm = 2.60 mg/m(3) (Verschueren, 2000)

-STANDARDS AND LABELS

WORKPLACE STANDARDS

ACGIH TLV Values for CAS75-01-4 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):

Editor's Note: The listed values are recommendations or guidelines developed by ACGIH(R) to assist in the control of health hazards. They should only be used, interpreted and applied by individuals trained in industrial hygiene. Before applying these values, it is imperative to read the introduction to each section in the current TLVs(R) and BEI(R) Book and become familiar with the constraints and limitations to their use. Always consult the Documentation of the TLVs(R) and BEIs(R) before applying these recommendations and guidelines.

Adopted Value

Vinyl chloride

TLV:

TLV-TWA: 1 ppm
TLV-STEL:
TLV-Ceiling:

Notations and Endnotes:

Carcinogenicity Category: A1
Codes: Not Listed
Definitions:

A1: Confirmed Human Carcinogen: The agent is carcinogenic to humans based on the weight of evidence from epidemiologic studies.

TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): Lung cancer; liver dam
Molecular Weight: 62.5

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3):

[(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm:

[(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance

AIHA WEEL Values for CAS75-01-4 (AIHA, 2006):

Not Listed

NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS75-01-4 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):

Listed as: Vinyl chloride
REL:

TWA:
STEL:
Ceiling:
Carcinogen Listing: (Ca) NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards).
Skin Designation: Not Listed
Note(s): See Appendix A

IDLH: Not Listed

OSHA PEL Values for CAS75-01-4 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):

Listed as: Vinyl chloride; see 29 CFR 1910.1017
Table Z-1 for Vinyl chloride; see 29 CFR 1910.1017:

8-hour TWA:

ppm:

Parts of vapor or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25 degrees C and 760 torr.

mg/m3:

Milligrams of substances per cubic meter of air. When entry is in this column only, the value is exact; when listed with a ppm entry, it is approximate.

Ceiling Value:
Skin Designation: No
Notation(s): Not Listed

OSHA List of Highly Hazardous Chemicals, Toxics, and Reactives for CAS75-01-4 (U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2010):

Not Listed

ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS

EPA CERCLA, Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities for CAS75-01-4 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Listed as: Vinyl chloride (D043)
Final Reportable Quantity, in pounds (kilograms):

1 (0.454)

Additional Information: Unlisted Hazardous Wastes Characteristic of Toxicity
Listed as: Vinyl chloride
Final Reportable Quantity, in pounds (kilograms):

1 (0.454)

Additional Information:
Listed as: Ethene, chloro-
Final Reportable Quantity, in pounds (kilograms):

1 (0.454)

Additional Information:

EPA CERCLA, Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities, Radionuclides for CAS75-01-4 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Not Listed

EPA RCRA Hazardous Waste Number for CAS75-01-4 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010b):

Listed as: Ethene, chloro-
P or U series number: U043
Footnote:
Listed as: Vinyl chloride
P or U series number: U043
Footnote:
Editor's Note: The D, F, and K series waste numbers and Appendix VIII to Part 261 -- Hazardous Constituents were not included. Please refer to 40 CFR Part 261.

EPA SARA Title III, Extremely Hazardous Substance List for CAS75-01-4 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Not Listed

EPA SARA Title III, Community Right-to-Know for CAS75-01-4 (40 CFR 372.65, 2006; 40 CFR 372.28, 2006):

Listed as: Vinyl chloride
Effective Date for Reporting Under 40 CFR 372.30: 1/1/87
Lower Thresholds for Chemicals of Special Concern under 40 CFR 372.28:

DOT List of Marine Pollutants for CAS75-01-4 (49 CFR 172.101 - App. B, 2005):

Not Listed

EPA TSCA Inventory for CAS75-01-4 (EPA, 2005):

Listed as: Ethene, chloro-

SHIPPING REGULATIONS

SURFACE

DOT -- Table of Hazardous Materials and Special Provisions for UN/NA Number 1086 (49 CFR 172.101, 2005):

Hazardous materials descriptions and proper shipping name: Vinyl chloride, stabilized

Symbol(s): Not Listed
Hazard class or Division: 2.1

2.1: Flammable gas. See 49 CFR section 173.115 for definitions.

Identification Number: UN1086
Packing Group: Not Listed
Label(s) required (if not excepted): 2.1

2.1: Flammable Gas.

Special Provisions: 21, B44, T50

21: This material must be stabilized by appropriate means (e.g., addition of chemical inhibitor, purging to remove oxygen) to prevent dangerous polymerization (see sxn. 173.21(f) of this subchapter).
B44: All parts of valves and safety relief devices in contact with lading must be of a material which will not cause formation of acetylides.
T50: Applicable liquefied compressed gases are authorized to be transported in portable tanks in accordance with the requirements of sxn. 173.313 of this subchapter.

Packaging Authorizations (refer to 49 CFR 173.***):

Exceptions: 306
Non-bulk packaging: 304
Bulk packaging: 314, 315

Quantity Limitations:

Passenger aircraft or railcar: Forbidden
Cargo aircraft only: 150 kg

Vessel Stowage Requirements:

Vessel stowage location: B

B: (i) The material may be stowed "on deck" or "under deck" on a cargo vessel and on a passenger vessel carrying a number of passengers limited to not more than the larger of 25 passengers, or one passenger per each 3 m of overall vessel length; and (ii) "On deck only" on passenger vessels in which the number of passengers specified in paragraph (k)(2)(i) of this section is exceeded.

Vessel stowage other: 40

40: Stow "clear of living quarters".

ICAO International Shipping Name for UN1086 (ICAO, 2002):

Proper Shipping Name: Vinyl chloride, stabilized
UN Number: 1086

LABELS

NFPA

NFPA Hazard Ratings for CAS75-01-4 (NFPA, 2002):

Listed as: Vinyl Chloride
Hazard Ratings:

Health Rating (Blue): 2

(2) Moderately toxic material. Intense or continued exposure could cause temporary incapacitation or possible residual injury unless prompt medical treatment is given.

Flammability Rating (Red): 4

(4) Extremely flammable. Materials which will rapidly vaporize at normal pressure and temperature and will burn readily. Including: gases, cryogenic materials, any liquid or gaseous material having a flash point below 73 degrees F and a boiling point below 100 degrees F, and materials which can form explosive mixtures with air.

Instability Rating (Yellow): 2

(2) Materials which in themselves are normally unstable and readily undergo violent chemical change, but do not detonate. This rating includes materials which may react violently with water or which may form potentially explosive mixtures with water.

Oxidizer/Water-Reactive Designation: Not Listed

-HANDLING AND STORAGE

SUMMARY

INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS

Vinyl chloride is a very dangerous fire hazard. It is an irritant and moderately toxic if ingested or inhaled. Contact with vinyl chloride liquid may cause frostbite. A regulated, marked area should be established where vinyl chloride is handled, used, or stored. Sources of ignition such as smoking and open flames are prohibited where vinyl chloride is handled, used, or stored. Use only non-sparking tools and equipment, especially when opening and closing containers of vinyl chloride; use explosion-proof electrical equipment and fittings, and ground all electrical lines wherever vinyl chloride is used, handled, manufactured, or stored (CGA, 1999; ITI, 1995; Lewis, 1998; Sittig, 1991).

STORAGE

CONTAINER

Store containers in a cool, dry, well-ventilated, non-combustible place; protect containers from physical damage. Typical shipping containers include pressure cylinders, tank cars, and tank barges. Metal containers involving the transfer of 5 gallons or more of vinyl chloride should be grounded and bonded; drums must be equipped with self-closing valves (valves must not be made of copper), pressure vacuum bungs, and flame arresters (Sittig, 1991).

ROOM/CABINET RECOMMENDATIONS

Store vinyl chloride in outside or detached storage; a standard combustible liquid room should be used for indoor storage. Build ditches or dikes around storage areas to control the liquid in the event of a container rupture; ditches are preferred since vinyl chloride should not be collected directly beneath or surrounding storage tanks (CGA, 1999; ITI, 1995).

INCOMPATIBILITIES

Vinyl chloride has violent reactions with oxidizers such as perchlorates, peroxides, permanganates, chlorates, and nitrates; it reacts with aluminum, aluminum alloys, and copper. Elevated temperature, oxidizing materials, or peroxides may cause hazardous polymerization (CGA, 1999; ITI, 1995; NFPA, 1997; Sittig, 1991).

-PERSONAL PROTECTION

SUMMARY

RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)

Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
Structural firefighters' protective clothing will only provide limited protection.

Avoid contacting skin with vinyl chloride: It is severe irritant to skin, eyes, and mucous membranes; it can cause skin burns by rapid evaporation and consequent freezing; and it is possible to be absorbed through skin (Lewis, 2000; Sittig, 1991).

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS for hand protection (CCOHS, 1989):

Select a material and style of glove that adequately protects hands from hazard.
Review Chemical Manufacturer's MSDS or Label, glove manufacturer's information, and regulatory/advisory agency sources to determine the protective ability of the glove.
Inspect and test gloves for defects before using.
Follow manufacturer's instructions for glove care and maintenance.
Check gloves for proper fit.
Wash off all chemical protective gloves with water before removing them.
Evaluate material resistance under conditions of use. Variations between products may affect resistance.
Maintain gloves carefully.

Workers who have any disorder of the liver, disorder of the gall bladder, or a past history of jaundice, who are receiving any drug which is potentially injurious to the liver, who have received chloroform or trichlorethylene as an anesthetic, and who are pregnant (liver is particularly sensitive to injury during pregnancy) should avoid exposure to vinyl chloride (a potentially hepatotoxic agent). In addition, workers should avoid alcohol consumption (ILO , 1998). In addition, those who have renal, cardiac, or pulmonary impairments may also be more at risk (HSDB , 2001).

"A pit or tank must never be entered without adhering to the following safety procedures: never alone, always with a lifeline, and always with a positive pressure supply of fresh air" (IPCS, 1999b).

Precautions for carcinogens should be strictly followed (HSDB , 2001).

EYE/FACE PROTECTION

Wear appropriate eye and face protection since vinyl chloride can cause immediate and severe eye and skin irritation.

If eye tissue is frozen or frostbite has occurred on skin, do not rub the area or flush with water, seek medical attention immediately. Otherwise, rinse eye immediately and thoroughly with water for at least 15 minutes, and wash skin with soap and water (NIOSH , 2001).

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

Keep upwind; avoid breathing vapors. Wear appropriate personal protective clothing including a positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (AAR, 2000; (NFPA, 1997).

"Although vinyl chloride has a faintly sweet odor at high concentrations, the odor is of no value in preventing excessive exposure" (Bingham et al, 2001a).

Refer to "Recommendations for respirator selection" in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards on TOMES Plus(R) for respirator information.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. Search results for CAS 75-01-4.

All data are compiled from published sources and are NOT recommended specifically by Truven Health Analytics. The appearance of specific manufacturers or products in this section does not represent an endorsement by Truven Health Analytics. No attempt has been made to verify the data presented. All product recommendations should be confirmed with the specific manufacturer for verification of product performance.
CLOTHING

Plastic Laminate

DuPont Personal Protection

CPF 2

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None detected
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

CPF 3

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None detected
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Reflector

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None detected
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Responder

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None detected
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Responder Plus

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None detected
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem 10,000

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 0.01
Notes: gas
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem 7500

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 0.03
Notes: gas
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem 9400

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.001
Notes: gas
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem BR

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.001
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem F

Degradation Rating: Not Listed
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 0.02
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2003)

Tychem LV

Degradation Rating: Not Listed
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.001
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2003)

Tychem QC

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: gas
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem SL

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: gas
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem ThermoPro

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.02
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2003)

Tychem TK

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.001
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)
Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.001
Notes: gas
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.02
Notes: gaseous
Citation: (Trelleborg-Viking, Inc., 2001)

Rubber Laminate

Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.01
Notes: gaseous
Citation: (Trelleborg-Viking, Inc., 2001)

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.01
Notes: gaseous
Citation: (Trelleborg-Viking, Inc., 2001)

Viton/Butyl

Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.

Super

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.03
Notes: gaseous
Citation: (Trelleborg-Viking, Inc., 2001)

FOOTWEAR

Specific recommendations and test data for this product type were not found in the available manufacturers' product literature.

GLOVES

Butyl

Best Manufacturing

Butyl 878

Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes of testing)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 268
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 0.29
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2004)
Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes of testing)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >240
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None Detected
Notes: Tested with Limited Exposure Method (ASTM F 1383)
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2004)

North Safety Products

Butyl Series

Degradation Rating: Poor
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Insufficient Data
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Insufficient Data
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (North, 2002)
Degradation Rating: Poor
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Insufficient Data
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Insufficient Data
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (North, 2002)
Degradation Rating: Poor
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Insufficient Data
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Insufficient Data
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (North, 2002)

Natural Rubber

Best Manufacturing

Original Nitty Gritty

Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes of testing)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: Tested under limited exposure method (ASTM F 1383)
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2004)
Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes of testing)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 2
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 38
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2004)

MAPA Spontex, Inc.

Blue-Grip/LL-301

Degradation Rating: Not Tested
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 11
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 33.8
Notes: 0.995
Citation: (MAPA Professional, 2004)

neoprene

Perfect Fit Glove Co, LLC

Chemzoil NL-339

Degradation Rating: Not Tested
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None detected
Notes: 0.995
Citation: (MAPA Professional, 2003)

Neoprene

Best Manufacturing

Chloroflex 723

Degradation Rating: Not Tested
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: gas, tested through limited exposure method (ATSM F 1383)
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)
Degradation Rating: Not Tested
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: gas
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)

Neoprene 6780 Series

Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 7
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 19
Notes: gas
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)
Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: gas, tested through limited exposure method (ATSM F 1383)
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)

Ultraflex Neoprene 32

Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: gas, tested through limited exposure method (ATSM F 1383)
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)
Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 17
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 13
Notes: gas
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)

Boss Manufacturing Company

Not specified

Degradation Rating: Not Recommended
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Listed
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Listed
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (Boss Manufacturing Company, 1998)

Neoprene+NatR

Best Manufacturing

Chem Master CHM

Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: gas, tested through limited exposure method (ATSM F 1383)
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)
Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 17
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 13
Notes: gas
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)

Nitrile

Best Manufacturing

N-DEX 8005

Degradation Rating: Not Tested
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: gas, tested through limited exposure method (ATSM F 1383)
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)
Degradation Rating: Not Tested
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: gas
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)

Nitri-Solve 727

Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None detected
Notes: gas
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)
Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >240
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None detected
Notes: gas, tested through limited exposure method (ATSM F 1383)
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)

Ultraflex Nitrile 22R

Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes of testing)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: Tested through limited exposure method (ATSM F 1383)
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2004)
Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes of testing)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 32
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 9
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2004)

Nitrile+PVC

Best Manufacturing

Hustler 725R

Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 19
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 20
Notes: gas
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)
Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: gas, tested through limited exposure method (ATSM F 1383)
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2002)

Plastic Laminate

North Safety Products

Silver Shield

Degradation Rating: Excellent
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None Detected
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (North, 2002)
Degradation Rating: Excellent
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None Detected
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (North, 2002)
Degradation Rating: Excellent
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None Detected
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (North, 2002)

Viton over Butyl

Best Manufacturing

Viton #890

Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes of testing)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None Detected
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2004)
Degradation Rating: Excellent (after 60 minutes of testing)
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >240
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None Detected
Notes: Tested with limited exposure method (ASTM F 1383)
Citation: (Best Manufacturing, 2004)

GENERAL INFORMATION

This section provides a compilation of chemical resistance information and test data for specific protective clothing products. Chemical resistance information includes both degradation resistance ratings and permeation resistance data. This information is designed to assist in the selection of appropriate protective clothing. Only data on specific products and manufacturers are included. Generic information or recommendations are not provided since significant differences can exist in the chemical resistance for apparent similar product types.
Specific product information is organized by general product type (gloves, garments, and footwear), material type, and manufacturer. The category 'garments' may include totally encapsulating suits, splash suits, as well as other items (e.g., coveralls, jackets, and aprons). Specific manufacturers should be contacted to determine the features of available styles/models.
In addition to chemical resistance information, there are many critical variables in the selection of protective clothing which cannot be represented in this summary of the literature. Some factors to be considered in choosing protective clothing include, but are not limited to: overall clothing integrity, physical hazard resistance, durability, human factors, ease of decontamination, and cost. Overall clothing integrity refers to a specific design's ability to offer consistent protection for all clothing-covered areas of the body. Physical hazards include resisting the effects of abrasion, cuts, tears, and punctures. Human factors entail effects on wearer mobility, visibility, and hearing for garments; dexterity, tactility, and grip for gloves; ankle support and weight for footwear; and, any effect of the clothing on the function of the wearer. There are several variations in the design for gloves, garments, and footwear that affect these factors. Protective clothing must properly be sized and correctly fit the wearer to ensure its proper use and function.
As required in the U.S.A., protective clothing should be selected based on a risk assessment of the workplace. This risk assessment must account for the identification of existing as well as potential hazards and involve the recommendation of protective clothing appropriate for the identified hazards. Therefore, the recommendations in this section should not be used as the sole basis for decisions on choice of protective clothing, but rather should be used as a tool by qualified occupational health and safety professionals or other technically qualified persons in conjunction with a review of all mitigating factors. Consult the OSHA PPE Standard (29 CFR 1910.132 - 1910.138) for regulations and additional guidance regarding the selection and use of protective clothing and equipment. For general information on protective clothing selection, refer to the "PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT - OSHA PUB 3077" document.
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING SELECTION

Determine the type of protective clothing item needed based on a risk assessment (e.g., gloves, garments, footwear).
For high risk situations, choose clothing that covers all parts of the body that may be exposed. In many cases, multiple clothing items will be required. Low risk situations may permit partial body protective clothing. Select protective clothing products that have reported chemical resistance data. High risk situations involving full body clothing or extended chemical contact often require permeation resistance data to determine the barrier effectiveness of materials used in the construction of clothing. Relatively low risk situations, where only splash or incidental exposure occur, may allow use of protective clothing based on degradation or penetration resistance data. Specifics on the interpretation of chemical resistance data are presented below.
Other factors must be considered in addition to chemical resistance. The selected chemical protective clothing item should offer the optimal combination of protection against identified hazards while allowing maximum function and comfort.

INTERPRETATION OF DEGRADATION RATINGS

Degradation refers to physical changes in a material as the result of chemical exposure. Degradation may become evident in visible changes, such as discoloration, swelling, delamination, deterioration, or disintegration. Degradation effects may also be measured by weight change or other changes in a material's physical properties (e.g., strength, elasticity, hardness).
Degradation resistance ratings are provided by manufacturers to rate the amount of degradation that occurs for a particular protective clothing material when contacted by a chemical. All degradation ratings are qualitative and include ratings, such as "EXCELLENT," "GOOD," "FAIR," "POOR," and "NOT RECOMMENDED." There is no standard test method for the measurement of chemical degradation resistance; therefore, manufacturer ratings may be based on different testing approaches. This makes comparison of degradation ratings between manufacturers unreliable.
The use of degradation resistance ratings alone to recommend protective clothing, particularly for high hazard situations, should be avoided. Degradation resistance testing does not directly assess the barrier quality of protective clothing, since materials can show relatively little degradation but still allow either permeation or penetration by a chemical. Degradation resistance ratings can be used to exclude protective clothing materials from consideration. Protective clothing materials with a "NOT RECOMMENDED" degradation resistance rating should never be used.
For some products, the rating "NO PENETRATION" is provided. This refers to penetration resistance test results that are based on a different procedure (American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard Test Method F 903). Penetration resistance testing involves placing a material sample in a test cell, exposing the exterior side of the material to a chemical, and then observing the interior side of the material for visible signs of liquid penetration. Part of the test is conducted at an elevated pressure. Test results are reported as pass (no penetration) or fail (penetration detected). Unlike degradation testing, penetration testing provides an assessment of protective clothing material barrier performance. Since penetration resistance testing examines only observable amounts of liquid penetration, permeation may still occur. The use of penetration resistance data must be restricted to liquid chemicals, and should be limited to scenarios where there is no reasonable vapor exposure hazard under the conditions of exposure.

INTERPRETATION OF PERMEATION DATA

Permeation is the process of chemical movement through a material on a molecular level. Permeation resistance refers to the ability of a material to retard or prevent chemical movement through it. Permeation may occur without any visible signs of degradation.
Permeation resistance is measured using a test cell which is divided into two halves by a protective clothing specimen. Chemical is placed on the challenge side, while the collection side is periodically monitored for permeating chemical. Permeation data were obtained in accordance with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard Test Method F 739 (Resistance of Materials Used in Protective Clothing to Permeation by Liquids and Gases), unless stated otherwise. In the case of chemicals that are classified as warfare agents, the data were obtained in accordance with the Military Standard 282 (MIL-STD-282) (Military Standard, Filter Units, Protective Clothing, Gas-Mask Components, and Related Products: Performance Test Methods).
Permeation rate is the amount of chemical that passes through a material for a measured surface area per unit time. In this section, permeation rate is expressed in micrograms per square centimeter per minute (mcg/cm(2)/min). The reported permeation rate is either the steady-state rate or the maximum rate observed during testing. In some cases, very large permeation rates exceed measurement techniques and are reported as ">" (greater than) or "HIGH."
Breakthrough time is the elapsed time, in minutes, from the time the chemical comes in contact with the material exterior surface, to the time that chemical is detected on the interior surface. When no breakthrough is detected, the breakthrough time is report as ">" the testing period. If permeation breakthrough is rapid, results are reported as "<" (less than) the earlier sampling time or as "IMMEDIATELY" (which usually means breakthrough in less than 4 minutes).
The breakthrough time should exceed the expected use period of the selected protective clothing. Additionally, there are several other factors that must be taken into account to provide appropriate protection.
Permeation testing is usually conducted with full strength, undiluted chemical for the duration of the test period. Actual exposures may involve diluted chemical for short or intermittent exposure periods.
Permeation testing is usually conducted at room temperature. Permeation occurs faster at elevated temperatures (short breakthrough times and higher permeation rates) and slower at reduced temperatures (long breakthrough times and lower permeation rates).
Permeation resistance of mixtures cannot usually be determined on the basis of the individual chemicals making up the mixture. Synergistic effects may occur and result in more rapid permeation than accounted for by the individual mixture chemicals.
Permeation rates may be used to calculate potential wearer exposure; however, several assumptions must be made about the extent of exposure and condition of clothing wear. Furthermore, there are few chemicals with dermal exposure limits, making it difficult to determine an acceptable skin exposure level.

COMPANY INFORMATION

Best Manufacturing 579 Edison Street Menlo, GA 30731 USA Phone: (706) 862-2302 Fax: (706) 862-6000 Toll-Free: (800) 241-0323 Website: http://www.bestglove.com Email: USA@bestglove.com
Boss Manufacturing Company 221 W. First Street Kewanee, IL 61443 USA Phone: (309) 852-2131 Fax: (309) 852-0848 Toll-Free: (800) 447-4581 Website: http://www.bossgloves.com Email: custserv@bossgloves.com
DuPont Personal Protection P. O. Box 80705 Wilmington, DE 19880-0705 USA Phone: (302) 774-1000 Toll-Free: (800) 931-3456 Website: http://personalprotection.dupont.com Email: personalprotection@usa.dupont.com
MAPA Spontex, Inc. 100 Spontex Dr. Columbia, TN 38401 USA Phone: (800) 537--2897 Fax: (800) 537--3299 Website: http://www.mapaglove.com Email: sales@mapaglove.com
North Safety Products 2000 Plainfield Pike Cranston, RI 02921 USA Phone: (800) 430-4110 Fax: (800) 572-6346 Toll-Free: (800) 430-4110 Website: http://www.northsafety.com Email: marketing@northsafety.com
Perfect Fit Glove Co, LLC 85 Innsbruck Dr. Buffalo, NY 14227 USA Phone: (800) 245-6837 Fax: (716) 668-3224 Toll-Free: (800) 245-6837 Website: http://www.perfectfitglove.com Email: perfectfitglove@perfectfitglove.com
Trelleborg-Viking, Inc. 170 West Road Suite 1 Portsmouth, NH 03801 USA Phone: (603) 436-1236 Fax: (603) 436-1392 Toll-Free: (800) 344-4458 Website: http://www.trelleborg.com/protective/ Email: protective@trelleborg.com

REFERENCES

CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING CITATIONS

The following sources were consulted for chemical protective clothing data:

(Ansell-Edmont, 2001)
(Bata Shoe Company, 1995)
(Best Manufacturing, 2002)
(Best Manufacturing, 2004)
(Boss Manufacturing Company, 1998)
(ChemFab Corporation, 1993)
(Comasec Safety, Inc., 2003)
(Comasec Safety, Inc., 2003a)
(DuPont, 2002)
(DuPont, 2002)
(DuPont, 2003)
(Guardian Manufacturing Group, 2001)
(ILC Dover, Inc., 1998)
(Kappler Inc., 2001)
(Kimberly-Clark, 2002)
(LaCrosse-Rainfair, 1997)
(MAPA Professional, 2003)
(MAPA Professional, 2004)
(Mar-Mac Manufacturing, Inc, 1995)
(Marigold Industrial, 2003)
(Memphis Glove Company, 2001)
(Montgomery Safety Products, 1995)
(Nat-Wear, 2001)
(Neese Industries, Inc., 2003)
(North, 2002)
(North, 2002)
(Playtex, 1995)
(River City, 1995)
(Safety 4, 2002)
(Servus, 1995)
(Standard Safety Equipment, 1995)
(Tingley, 2002)
(Trelleborg-Viking, Inc., 2001)
(Trelleborg-Viking, Inc., 2002)
(Wells Lamont Industrial, 2002)
(Workrite, 1997)

ENGINEERING CONTROLS

"Engineering controls are the most effective way of reducing exposure" (IPCS, 1999b).

The best protection is to enclose operations and provide local exhaust, preferable using a hood with forced ventilation (CGA, 1999; IPCS, 1999b).

-PHYSICAL HAZARDS

FIRE HAZARD

SUMMARY

POTENTIAL FIRE OR EXPLOSION HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)
- EXTREMELY FLAMMABLE.
- Will be easily ignited by heat, sparks or flames.
- Will form explosive mixtures with air.
- Silane will ignite spontaneously in air.
- Those substances designated with a "P" may polymerize explosively when heated or involved in a fire.
- Vapors from liquefied gas are initially heavier than air and spread along ground.
- Vapors may travel to source of ignition and flash back.
- Cylinders exposed to fire may vent and release flammable gas through pressure relief devices.
- Containers may explode when heated.
- Ruptured cylinders may rocket.
Vinyl chloride is a very dangerous fire hazard when exposed to heat, flame, or oxidizers. It is shipped in containers as a liquefied gas under its own vapor pressure. Under fire conditions, closed containers may violently rupture and rocket; flames can flash back to the source of the leak very easily. A fire may restart after it has been extinguished (AAR, 1998a).

FLAMMABILITY CLASSIFICATION

NFPA Flammability Rating for CAS75-01-4 (NFPA, 2002):

Listed as: Vinyl Chloride
Flammability Rating: 4

(4) Extremely flammable. Materials which will rapidly vaporize at normal pressure and temperature and will burn readily. Including: gases, cryogenic materials, any liquid or gaseous material having a flash point below 73 degrees F and a boiling point below 100 degrees F, and materials which can form explosive mixtures with air.

INITIATING OR CONTRIBUTING PROPERTIES

Its flash point is -78 degrees C, -112 degrees F (closed cup) (Budavari, 2000).

FIRE CONTROL/EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)

DO NOT EXTINGUISH A LEAKING GAS FIRE UNLESS LEAK CAN BE STOPPED.

SMALL FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)

Dry chemical or CO2.

LARGE FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)

Water spray or fog.
Move containers from fire area if you can do it without risk.

TANK FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)

Fight fire from maximum distance or use unmanned hose holders or monitor nozzles.
Cool containers with flooding quantities of water until well after fire is out.
Do not direct water at source of leak or safety devices; icing may occur.
Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety devices or discoloration of tank.
ALWAYS stay away from tanks engulfed in fire.
For massive fire, use unmanned hose holders or monitor nozzles; if this is impossible, withdraw from area and let fire burn.

NFPA Extinguishing Methods for CAS75-01-4 (NFPA, 2002):

Listed as: Vinyl Chloride
Extinguishing Method(s): 6

6: Flammable gas fires are only safe to extinguish once the gas flow has been turned off. Attempting to fight a gas fire without turning off the gas can cause formation of an explosive gas cloud.

SMALL FIRES: Stop the flow of gas before extinguishing the fire. Use dry chemical or carbon dioxide to extinguish fire (CHRIS , 2001). (AAR, 1998a)

Fight the fire from a protected place or from the maximum possible distance. Keep upwind and avoid breathing vapors.

LARGE FIRES: Let the fire burn, as a large fire is practically inextinguishable. Cool all affected containers with flooding quantities of water. Keep run-off water out of sewers and water sources. Keep upwind and avoid breathing vapors. Note that fire may restart and explosive re-ignition may occur unless the fire is allowed to burn out (CGA, 1999; Lewis, 2000).

COMBUSTION TOXICITY

When heated to decomposition, vinyl chloride emits irritating and highly toxic gases including phosgene, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide(ACGIH, 1991; Bingham et al, 2001a; OHM/TADS , 2001).

EXPLOSION HAZARD

Vinyl chloride is heavier than air and is a severe explosion hazard. It is easily ignited and may explode if ignited in an enclosed area. Prolonged exposure of containers to heat or fire may cause vinyl chloride to polymerize and rupture the container (AAR, 2000; CHRIS , 2001; NFPA, 1997).

DUST/VAPOR HAZARD

When heated to decomposition, vinyl chloride emits irritating and highly toxic gases including phosgene, hydrogen chloride, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide (ACGIH, 1991; Bingham et al, 2001a; OHM/TADS , 2001).

REACTIVITY HAZARD

CAUTION: This material may polymerize violently under high temperature conditions or upon contamination with other products. Polymerization will produce heat and high pressure buildup in containers which may lead to an explosion or container rupture (ERG, 2004).

"At ambient temperatures and in the absence of air, dry purified vinyl chloride is highly stable and non corrosive. At temperatures above 450 degrees C (decomposition temperature), partial decomposition occurs yielding acetylene, hydrogen chloride, and trace amounts of 2-chloro-1,3-butadine (chloroprene). This reaction also occurs by lower temperatures (at 30 degrees C and under) in the presence of sodium or potassium hydroxide" (IPCS, 1999a).

Vinyl chloride becomes unstable very easily (CGA, 1999; IPCS, 1999a; Lewis, 2000; NIOSH , 2001; Pohanish & Greene, 1997):

It reacts explosively with aluminum or aluminum alloys.
It may polymerize explosively when exposed to elevated temperatures or when exposed to pressure.
It attacks iron and steel in the presence of moisture due to the formation of hydrochloric acid.
It reacts vigorously with oxidizing materials (such as perchlorates, peroxides, permanganates, chlorates, and nitrates).
It explodes on contact with oxides of nitrogen.

It is incompatible with peroxides. It may polymerize explosively when peroxides form after long period of exposure to atmospheric oxygen (due to polymerization of the chloride). Radical polymerization may run out of control (NIOSH , 2001; Urben, 1995).

Polymerization reaction evolves heat (HSDB , 2001; OHM/TADS , 2001).
An unstable polyperoxide is formed in vinyl chloride through oxidation by atmospheric oxygen in the presence of any of a variety of contaminants;long-term storage increases the concentration of unstable polyperoxide to hazardous levels (NFPA, 1997).

Static generated by discharging a spray of vapor and liquid into a fume hood ignited the vapor; discharge of vapor only did not lead to ignition (Urben, 1995).

Copper or copper alloys can react with acetylene present as impurity to form explosive acetylide (CGA, 1999).

"There are indications for reactions of vinyl chloride with chlorine or chloride used for water disinfection, thus leading to chloroacetaldehyde and other undesirable compounds (IPCS, 1999a).

EVACUATION PROCEDURES

SUMMARY

Editor's Note: This material is not listed in the Table of Initial Isolation and Protective Action Distances.

LARGE SPILL - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)

Consider initial downwind evacuation for at least 800 meters (1/2 mile).

FIRE - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)

If tank, rail car or tank truck is involved in a fire, ISOLATE for 1600 meters (1 mile) in all directions; also, consider initial evacuation for 1600 meters (1 mile) in all directions.

PUBLIC SAFETY MEASURES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)

CALL Emergency Response Telephone Number on Shipping Paper first. If Shipping Paper not available or no answer, refer to appropriate telephone number:

MEXICO:

SETIQ:

01-800-00-214-00 in the Mexican Republic;
For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5559-1588;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-559-1588.

CENACOM:

01-800-00-413-00 in the Mexican Republic;
For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5550-1496, 5550-1552, 5550-1485, or 5550-4885;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-550-1496, or 011-52-555-550-1552; 011-52-555-550-1485, or 011-52-555-550-4885.

ARGENTINA:

CIQUIME:

0-800-222-2933 in the Republic of Argentina;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: +54-11-4613-1100.

BRAZIL:

PRÓ-QUÍMICA:

0-800-118270 (Toll-free in Brazil);
For calls originating elsewhere, call: +55-11-232-1144 (Collect calls are accepted).

COLUMBIA:

CISPROQUIM:

01-800-091-6012 in Colombia;
For calls originating in Bogotá, Colombia, call: 288-6012;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-57-1-288-6012.

CANADA:

CANUTEC:

613-996-6666 (Collect calls are accepted);
*666 cellular (in Canada only).

UNITED STATES:

CHEMTREC®:

1-800-424-9300 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
703-527-3887 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

CHEM-TEL, INC.:

1-800-255-3924 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
813-248-0585 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

INFOTRAC:

1-800-535-5053 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
352-323-3500 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

3E COMPANY:

1-800-451-8346 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
760-602-8703 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

NATIONAL RESPONSE CENTER (NRC):

1-800-424-8802 - (24 hours) (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
202-267-2675 for calls in the District of Columbia.

MILITARY SHIPMENTS:

703-697-0218 - Explosives/ammunition incidents (Collect calls are accepted);
1-800-851-8061 - All other dangerous goods incidents.

NATIONWIDE POISON CONTROL CENTER (United States only):

1-800-222-1222 (Toll-free in the U.S.).

For additional details see the section entitled "WHO TO CALL FOR ASSISTANCE" under the ERG Instructions.
As an immediate precautionary measure, isolate spill or leak area for at least 100 meters (330 feet) in all directions.
Keep unauthorized personnel away.
Stay upwind.
Many gases are heavier than air and will spread along ground and collect in low or confined areas (sewers, basements, tanks).
Keep out of low areas.

If a fire becomes uncontrollable or a container is exposed to direct flame, consider evacuation of a one-half (1/2) mile radius. If vinyl chloride is leaking but not on fire, consider evacuation from downwind areas based on the amount of vinyl chloride spilled, the location, and weather conditions(AAR, 2000).

AIHA ERPG Values for CAS75-01-4 (AIHA, 2006):

Listed as Vinyl Chloride
ERPG-1 (units = ppm): 50
ERPG-2 (units = ppm): 5000
ERPG-3 (units = ppm): 20,000
Under Ballot, Review, or Consideration: No
Definitions:

ERPG-1: The ERPG-1 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to one hour without experiencing more than mild, transient adverse health effects or perceiving a clearly defined objectionable odor.
ERPG-2: The ERPG-2 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to one hour without experiencing or developing irreversible or other serious health effects or symptoms that could impair an individual's ability to take protective action.
ERPG-3: The ERPG-3 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to one hour without experiencing or developing life-threatening health effects.

DOE TEEL Values for CAS75-01-4 (U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management, 2010):

Listed as Vinyl chloride
TEEL-0 (units = ppm): 1
TEEL-1 (units = ppm): 250
TEEL-2 (units = ppm): 1200
TEEL-3 (units = ppm): 4800
Definitions:

TEEL-0: The threshold concentration below which most people will experience no adverse health effects.
TEEL-1: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm [parts per million] or mg/m(3) [milligrams per cubic meter]) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience notable discomfort, irritation, or certain asymptomatic, nonsensory effects. However, these effects are not disabling and are transient and reversible upon cessation of exposure.
TEEL-2: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m(3)) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience irreversible or other serious, long-lasting, adverse health effects or an impaired ability to escape.
TEEL-3: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m(3)) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience life-threatening adverse health effects or death.

AEGL Values for CAS75-01-4 (National Research Council, 2010; National Research Council, 2009; National Research Council, 2008; National Research Council, 2007; NRC, 2001; NRC, 2002; NRC, 2003; NRC, 2004; NRC, 2004; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; 62 FR 58840, 1997; 65 FR 14186, 2000; 65 FR 39264, 2000; 65 FR 77866, 2000; 66 FR 21940, 2001; 67 FR 7164, 2002; 68 FR 42710, 2003; 69 FR 54144, 2004):

Not Listed

NIOSH IDLH Values for CAS75-01-4 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):

Not Listed

CONTAINMENT/WASTE TREATMENT OPTIONS

SUMMARY

SPILL OR LEAK PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)
- ELIMINATE all ignition sources (no smoking, flares, sparks or flames in immediate area).
- All equipment used when handling the product must be grounded.
- Stop leak if you can do it without risk.
- Do not touch or walk through spilled material.
- Do not direct water at spill or source of leak.
- Use water spray to reduce vapors or divert vapor cloud drift. Avoid allowing water runoff to contact spilled material.
- If possible, turn leaking containers so that gas escapes rather than liquid.
- Prevent entry into waterways, sewers, basements or confined areas.
- Isolate area until gas has dispersed.
RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 116 (ERG, 2004)
- Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
- Structural firefighters' protective clothing will only provide limited protection.
Keep upwind; avoid breathing vapor/gas(ACGIH, 1991; AAR, 2000).
Vinyl chloride is toxic and can asphyxiate by displacement of air. Spilled vinyl chloride is slow to disperse and will collect in low-lying areas due to the high vapor density. A leak from the storage or shipping container can be in the form of liquid or vapor/gas, although the liquid will rapidly "evaporate" to vapor/gas (ACGIH, 1991).
Vinyl chloride in air can be recycled, incinerated, or microbially degraded (IPCS, 1999a).
Keep liquid form of vinyl chloride out of water. It is lighter than water and will float in water. It also "boils" on water and produces flammable and irritating visible vapor clouds (CHRIS , 2001).
Vinyl chloride in water can be removed by stripping, extraction, adsorption, or oxidation. Vinyl chloride in ground water (or soil) can be removed by in situ bioremediation techniques (evaporative and other methods coupled with microbial treatment) (IPCS, 1999a).
Evacuate area in the event of a large discharge of vinyl chloride (CHRIS , 2001).

SMALL LEAK/SPILL

Vinyl chloride can become unstable when exposed to air; consider all spills fire and explosion hazards (NFPA, 1997; Urben, 1995).
- Accidental exposure to atmospheric oxygen for a long period caused formation of an unstable polyperoxide which initiated an explosion. Aqueous sodium hydroxide solution (20-30 %) may be used to destroy the peroxide as a precaution (Urben, 1995).

LARGE LEAK/SPILL

Vinyl chloride can become unstable when exposed to air; consider all spills fire and explosion hazards (NFPA, 1997; Urben, 1995).
- If vinyl chloride is spilled, get everyone out of the spill area and establish ventilation to keep vapor levels below the explosive limit. Keep sparks, flames and other sources of ignition away from it. Attempt to stop the leak if this can be done without undue personnel hazard. Use water spray to knock down vapors and control runoff (AAR, 2000; NFPA, 1997; Sittig, 1991).

WASTE TREATMENT OPTIONS

BIOREMEDIATION

Vinyl chloride biodegraded in a methanotrophic attached-film bioreactor. The vinyl chloride removal efficiency ranged from 96.3-99.8% when the reactor was loaded in the range from 1800-9600 mcg/L. The maximum degradation rate was 1 g/L/d (Nelson & Jewell, 1993).
Anaerobic degradation (of initial concentration of 400 mcg/L) in an adapted methanogenic aquifer was reported to have a half-life of 4 weeks at 20 degrees C (Verschueren, 2001).
- The biodegradation rate of vinyl chloride in a soil-water or sediment-water incubation study using natural microbial flora under methanogenic conditions was 100% in 23 days (Dragun, 1988).
- Laboratory experiments that evaluated vinyl chloride's biodegradation under anaerobic conditions in the presence of sand and methanogenic microorganisms showed a 50% degradation in 4 weeks and a 100% degradation in 11 weeks. When sand was not present, only 20% of the vinyl chloride were degraded in 4 weeks, and only 55% in 11 weeks (HSDB, 2004).
Methylosinus sp.:
- Vinyl chloride is rapidly metabolized using a resting cell suspension of the soil methylotroph Methylosinus trichosporium OB-3b. The half-life of the reaction, based on chloride ion release, is 0.61 hours. The reaction conditions were pH 7.4, 0.1 M phosphate buffer with a cell density of 0.1 g/ml. The complex metabolic mechanism was found to proceed through an intermediate chloroethylene oxide which is subsequently dechlorinated to ethylene oxide. The study concluded that the organism participates in the hydrolysis of both intermediates (Castro et al, 1992).
Pseudomonas sp.:
- Vinyl chloride is readily metabolized by a soil Pseudomonas sp. in resting cell suspensions. The process mechanism was established to include a dehalogenation step that entails a direct hydroxylation of the C-Cl bond producing acetaldehyde. This product is further oxidized to hydroxyacetic acid then to carbon dioxide. The half-life for dechlorination, with cells grown on 3-chloropropanol, was 1.3 hours at a cell density of 0.1 g/mL (Castro et al, 1992a).
Mycobacterium aurum and Xanthobacter sp.:
- Two bacteria, Mycobacterium aurum L1 and Xanthobacter autotrophicus GJ10, were characterized for their effectiveness for removal of vinyl chloride and 2-dichloroethane from waste gases. A mixed culture of the two bacteria proved to be effective for removing and mineralizing both vinyl chloride and 2-dichlorethane. The mixed culture was found to operate at concentrations much higher than the allowable concentrations of these materials in waste gases (Hartmans et al, 1992).
- The bacterium Xanthobactor (strain Py2) was grown on propylene as the carbon source. The resultant culture degraded several chlorinated alkenes of environmental concern, including vinyl chloride. This study confirmed that alkene monooxygenase was the active enzyme required to catalyze chlorinated alkene degradations (Ensign et al, 1992).
- Mycobacterium aureum is capable of growth using vinyl chloride as its sole carbon source (Verschueren, 2001).
Waste management activities associated with material disposition are unique to individual situations. Proper waste characterization and decisions regarding waste management should be coordinated with the appropriate local, state, or federal authorities to ensure compliance with all applicable rules and regulations.

PHYSICAL TREATMENT

A suggested disposal method for vinyl chloride is incineration, preferably after mixing it with another combustible fuel. Combustion should be ensured to go to completion. Formation of phosgene should be avoided. Halo acids produced should be removed with an acid scrubber (Sittig, 1991).
- Most of the vinyl chloride produced industrially is bound in polyvinyl chloride articles, and incinertion involves a risk of formation of other unwanted chlorinated organic compounds (IPCS, 1999a).
- The amount of volatile aliphatic hydrocarbons and volatile chlorinated organic compounds decreased when a secondary, 900 degrees C, combustion temperature was used in the waste incineration of vinyl chloride. However, this higher temperature increased the amount of aromatic hydrocarbons produced (Nishikawa et al, 1992).
- Fluidized bed incineration at a temperature range of 450 to 980 degrees C (residence times of seconds) and rotary kiln incineration at a temperature range of 820 to 1600 degrees C (also with residence times of seconds) may be used (HSDB , 2001).

-ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD MANAGEMENT

POLLUTION HAZARD

ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE

Vinyl chloride is most commonly introduced into the environment through air and wastewater emissions from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) production and manufacturing facilities (HSDB, 2004; Howard, 1989).
It is not known to occur naturally, although it may be formed as a by-product of chlorinated C2 solvents biodegradation (HSDB, 2004; IPCS, 1999a).

Vinyl chloride has been detected in landfill gas and leachate as a degradation product of chlorinated hydrocarbons deposited as solvent wastes in landfills (IPCS, 1999a).

Residual vinyl chloride has been found in PVC resins, however, since the late 1970s when many countries began regulating these levels, newer processing techniques have reduced this source to nearly undetectable levels (HSDB, 2004; IPCS, 1999a; Howard, 1989).

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE

Workers may be exposed to vinyl chloride through its production and use in the manufacture of PVC and other chlorinated compounds. Inhalation and dermal contact are the most common routes of exposure (HSDB, 2004).

GENERAL POPULATION EXPOSURE

Negligible amounts of vinyl chloride may migrate into food and liquids stored in PVC containers or wrappers (HSDB, 2004; IPCS, 1999a).
Vinyl chloride has been detected in cigarette and cigar smoke (HSDB, 2004; ACGIH, 1991a).

ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND KINETICS

When vinyl chloride is released into the atmosphere, it will exist almost entirely as a vapor in ambient air. Gas-phase vinyl chloride will degrade rapidly through reaction with photochemically-produced hydroxyl radicals. Reaction by-products in the atmosphere include chloroacetaldehyde, hydrogen chloride, chloroethylene epoxide, formaldehyde, formyl chloride, formic acid, and carbon monoxide (Howard, 1989).
- Reaction with hydroxyl radicals is expected to be rapid, with a half-life of 55 hours, calculated from a rate constant of 6.96x10(-12) cm(3)/molecule-sec at 25 degrees C and a radical concentration of 5x10(5)/cm(3) (HSDB, 2004).
- Calculated half-lives of the reactions of vinyl chloride with hydroxyl radicals and with ozone in the atmosphere are 1.2 days and 4.0 days, respectively (Verschueren, 2001).
- Gas-phase vinyl chloride will degrade rapidly by reaction with hydroxyl radicals with an estimated half-life of 1.5 days (Howard, 1989).
- Approximately 50% of atmospheric vinyl chloride exposed to sunlight disappeared in 0.5 days in September and 2 days in December (Howard, 1989).
- The rate constant for the vapor phase reaction of vinyl chloride with photochemically-produced hydroxyl radicals was determined to be 6.60x10(-12) cm(3)/molecule-sec (at 26 degrees C), corresponding to a half-life of 1.5 days at an atmospheric concentration of 8x10(5) hydroxyl radicals/cm(3) (Howard, 1989).
- The half-life of vinyl chloride in air ranges from 9.7-97 hours based on its photooxidation half-life in air (Howard et al, 1991).
- The half-life of vinyl chloride's photooxidative atmospheric degradation is reduced to 3-7 hours when nitrogen oxides are present, as is the case in photochemical smog situations (de Rooij et al, 2004; HSDB , 2001; Howard, 1989).
Direct photolysis should not be important, since vinyl chloride only weakly absorbs solar radiation (HSDB, 2004).

WATER

SURFACE WATER
- When released into the water, vinyl chloride will volatilize rapidly; volatilization half-lives range from 1 hour to 3 days in a model river and a model lake, respectively. It also may undergo indirect photolysis in sunlit surface waters containing photosensitizers (such as humic acid) or free radicals (HSDB, 2004; OHM/TADS, 2004; Howard, 1989).
- Vinyl chloride is not expected to hydrolyze (over pH range of 4.3 to 9.4) at an environmentally significant rate, to bioconcentrate in aquatic organisms, or to adsorb to suspended solids or sediments (HSDB, 2004; Verschueren, 2001; Howard, 1989) .
- Reactions between vinyl chloride and many salts may generate complexes that have a greater water solubility than vinyl chloride itself. Therefore, the presence of salts in water can influence the total amount of vinyl chloride in the aquatic system (HSDB, 2004).
- Vinyl chloride has the potential to react with chlorine in water, thereby generating more highly chlorinated compounds. This may be the case in environments such as municipal water chlorination facilities (HSDB, 2004).

SOIL

TERRESTRIAL
- Vinyl chloride is expected to volatilize rapidly from moist soil, and may also volatilize from dry soil. Any vinyl chloride that does not evaporate will be very mobile in soil and may leach into groundwater. Under normal environmental conditions, it is not expected to hydrolyze in soils (HSDB, 2004; Howard, 1989).

ABIOTIC DEGRADATION

Because of its volatility, vinyl chloride exists almost entirely in the gas-phase in the environment. It degrades rapidly in the atmosphere through reaction with photochemically-produced hydroxyl radicals and ozone. Vinyl chloride will volatilize quickly from water and soil surfaces. It is not expected to adsorb to suspended solids or sediments. In soils, material that does not vaporize will be highly mobile, and may leach into groundwater (HSDB, 2004; Howard, 1989).

Photodissociation does not appear to be a major degradation process. Photooxidation has been reported to remove vinyl chloride rapidly from the troposphere with a half-life of a few hours (HSDB, 2004).

Direct photolysis in water is expected to be, at best, a very slow degradation process. However, in the presence of photosensitizers or free-radical sources, such as humic material, acetone or hydrogen peroxide, vinyl chloride has been shown to decompose rapidly when irradiated with ultraviolet light (HSDB, 2004).

Reactions with molecular oxygen at temperatures and oxygen concentrations present in natural waters will not contribute significantly to the degradation (HSDB, 2004).

BIODEGRADATION

The scientific judgement of the half-life of vinyl chloride in soil ranges from 672-4320 hours (4 weeks - 6 months) based on estimated unacclimated aqueous aerobic biodegradation half-life (Howard et al, 1991).

The scientific judgement of the half-life of vinyl chloride in surface waters ranges from 672 - 4320 hours (4 weeks - 6 months) based on estimated unacclimated aqueous aerobic biodegradation half-life (Howard et al, 1991).

The scientific judgement of the half-life of vinyl chloride in ground water ranges from 1344-69,000 hours (8 weeks - 95 months) based on estimated unacclimated aqueous aerobic biodegradation half-life (low half-life) and an estimated half-life for anaerobic biodegradation of vinyl chloride from a ground water field study of chlorinated ethenes (Howard et al, 1991).

Biodegradation under anaerobic conditions, such as in flooded soil or groundwater, may occur. However, existing data indicate that vinyl chloride is not readily degraded in aerobic systems, such as natural waters (HSDB, 2004; Howard, 1989).

BIOACCUMULATION

BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR

A bioconcentration factor (BCF) for aquatic organisms of approximately 7 was estimated based on the water solubility of 2736 mg/L (IPCS, 1999a; Howard, 1989) .
A BCF of 2.8 for aquatic organisms was calculated based on log octanol/water partition coefficient (log Kow) of 0.9 (IPCS, 1999a).
A BCF of 5.7 for aquatic microorganisms was calculated based on an octanol/water partition coefficient (Kow) of 1.23 (IPCS, 1999a).

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICITY

FISH

EC20 - FISH: 14,520 mcg/L -- estimated (IPCS, 1999a)
LC50 - BLUEGILL (Lepomis macrochirus): 1220 mg/L for 96H (de Rooij et al, 2004)
LC50 - LARGEMOUTH BASS (Micropterus salmoides): 1060 mg/L for 96H (de Rooij et al, 2004)
LC50 - ZEBRA DANIO (Brachydanio rerio): 240 mg/L for 24H (IPCS, 1999a)
LC50 - ZEBRA DANIO (Brachydanio rerio): 210 mg/L for 96H -- >99% purity; semi-static, closed system (de Rooij et al, 2004)
NOAEC - FRESHWATER FISH: 128 mg/L (IPCS, 1999a)
NOAEC - FRESHWATER FISH: 0.088 - 29 mg/L (IPCS, 1999a)
NOEC - ZEBRA DANIO (Brachydanio rerio): 128 mg/L for 96H -- >99% purity; semi-static, closed system (de Rooij et al, 2004)

EC50 - ANAEROBIC MICROORGANISM: 40 mg/L for 3.5 days -- based on inhibition of respiration in a batch assay (IPCS, 1999b)

IC50 - PROTOZOA (Tetrahymena pyriformis): 540 mg/L; 8.6 mmol/L -- caused a reduction in population doubling time (IPCS, 1999a)

-PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

MOLECULAR WEIGHT

62.50

DESCRIPTION/PHYSICAL STATE

It is a colorless gas. However, it can be stored as liquid under pressure at ambient temperature (most frequently compressed as a liquified gas under its own vapor pressure during shipping or storage) or under atmospheric pressure at a temperature below its boiling point (such as a during handling) (AAR, 2000; (CHRIS , 2001; Lewis, 1998).

If high temperature is expected at atmospheric pressure, 40-100 ppm of phenol is used as inhibitor of polymerization. It can polymerize in the presence of air sunlight, or heat (CHRIS , 2001).

Vinyl chloride is highly flammable, and at high concentrations exhibits a pleasant, ether-like, or faintly sweet odor (CGA, 1999; NIOSH , 2001).

VAPOR PRESSURE

2660 mmHg (at 25 degrees C) (ATSDR, 1997; Howard, 1989) Verschueren, 2000)

2600 mmHg (at 25 degrees C) (Lewis, 2000)

2530 mmHg (at 20 degrees C) (ACGIH, 1991; (ATSDR, 1997; Bingham et al, 2001a; Budavari, 2000)

2524 mmHg (at 20 degrees C) (NFPA, 1997)

2300 mmHg (at 20 degrees C) (Lewis, 1997)

580 mmHg (at -20 degrees C) (Verschueren, 2000)

400 mmHg at (-28 degrees C) (OHM/TADS, 2001)

240 mmHg at (-40 degrees C) (Verschueren, 2000)

788 kPa ; 114.3 psig (at 54.4 degrees C; 130 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)

62.3 kPa ; 90.3 psig (at 46.1 degrees C; 115 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)

519 kPa; 75.3 psig (at 40.6 degrees C; 105 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)

243 kPa; 35.3 psig (at 21.1 degrees C; 70 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)

3.3 atm (at 68 degrees F) (NIOSH , 2001)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

OTHER TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE

0.9106 (at 20/4 degrees C) (ACGIH, 1991; (Bingham et al, 2001a; Budavari, 2000)
LIQUID: 0.9121 (at 20/20 degrees C) (Lewis, 1997)
LIQUID: 0.9195 (at 15/4 degrees C) (Lewis, 2000)
0.91 (at 15/4 degrees C) (Verschueren, 2000)

TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE NOT LISTED

GAS: 2.21 (NIOSH , 2001)

DENSITY

OTHER TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE

0.9106 g/cm(3) (at 20 degrees C) (ATSDR, 1997)
0.9195 g/cm(3) (at 15 degrees C) (ATSDR, 1997)
0.969 g/cm(3) (at -14.2 degrees C) (ATSDR, 1997)
0.97 kg/L (at -14 degrees C) (Ashford, 1994a)
GAS: 2.56 kg/m(3); 0.160 lb/ft(3) (at 21.1 degrees C; 70 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)
LIQUID: 908.41 kg/m(3); 56.71 lb/ft(3) (at 21.1 degrees C; 70 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)
LIQUID: 0.969 kg/m(3) (at -13 degrees C) (CHRIS , 2001)
LIQUID: 871.08 kg/m(3); 54.38 lb/ft(3) (at 40.6 degrees C; 105 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)
LIQUID: 860.03 kg/m(3); 53.69 lb/ft(3) (at 46.1 degrees C; 115 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)
LIQUID: 842.73 kg/m(3); 52.61 lb/ft(3) (at 54.4 degrees C; 130 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)

FREEZING/MELTING POINT

FREEZING POINT

-153.8 degrees C (ACGIH, 1991)
-153.8 degrees C; -244.8 degrees F; -119.4 K (CHRIS , 2001)
-159.7 degrees C; -256 degrees F (Lewis, 1997; Lewis, 2000; NIOSH , 2001)

MELTING POINT

-153.8 degrees C (ATSDR, 1997; Budavari, 2000; Howard, 1989)
-160 degrees C (ITI, 1995) OHM/TADS, 2001)
-153.9 degrees C; -245 degrees F (NFPA, 1997)
-154 degrees C; -245 degrees F (CGA, 1999)
Liquefies at 21.6 degrees C (ITI, 1995)

BOILING POINT

-13.37 degrees C (ATSDR, 1997; Budavari, 2000; Howard, 1989)

-13.9 degrees C (Lewis, 1997; Lewis, 1998; Lewis, 2000)

-16 degrees C (Ashford, 1994a)

-14 degrees C (ITI, 1995)

-13.4 degrees C; 7.93 degrees F (ACGIH, 1991; (CGA, 1999)

-13.8 degrees C; 7.2 degrees F; 259.4 K (CHRIS , 2001)

-14 degrees C; 7 degrees F (NFPA, 1997)

FLASH POINT

-78 degrees C (ITI, 1995) OHM/TADS, 2001)

-77 degrees C; -108 degrees F (Lewis, 1997)

17.6 degrees F (Cleveland open cup) (Lewis, 2000)

-77.8 degrees C (open cup) (ACGIH, 1991)

-77.8 degrees C; -108.4 degrees F (open cup) (CGA, 1999; NFPA, 1997)

-110 degrees F (open cup) (CHRIS , 2001)

-78 degrees C; -112 degrees F (closed cup) (Budavari, 2000)

AUTOIGNITION TEMPERATURE

472.22 degrees C; 881.6 degrees F (ATSDR, 1993) OHM/TADS, 2001)

EXPLOSIVE LIMITS

LOWER

3.6% (ITI, 1995; NFPA, 1997; NIOSH , 2001; Sittig, 1991)
3.8 % (in air; at 20 degrees C) (IPCS, 1999a)
4% (ACGIH, 1991; (Bingham et al, 2001a; CGA, 1999; IPCS, 1999a; Lewis, 1997; Lewis, 2000)

UPPER

22% (ACGIH, 1991; (Bingham et al, 2001a; CGA, 1999; IPCS, 1999a; Lewis, 1997; Lewis, 2000) OHM/TADS, 2001)
29.3 degrees C (in air; at 20 degrees C) (ICPS, 1999a)
33.0% (ITI, 1995; NFPA, 1997; NIOSH , 2001)

SOLUBILITY

IN WATER

Slightly soluble (ACGIH, 1991; (Budavari, 2000; Lewis, 1997; Lewis, 2000; NFPA, 1997).

1100 mg/L (at 25 degrees C) (ATSDR, 1997; Bingham et al, 2001a) Verschueren, 2000)
2763 mg/L (at 25 degrees C) (Howard, 1989)
0.11% (at 25 degrees C; 77 degrees F) (CGA, 1999; NIOSH , 2001)
2700 mg/L (HSDB , 2001)

Liquid form of vinyl chloride is lighter than water and will float in water. It will also "boil" on water and produce flammable and irritating visible vapor cloud (CHRIS , 2001).

IN ORGANIC SOLVENTS

Soluble/ miscible with oxygenated and chlorinated solvents, such as alcohol, ether or carbon tetrachloride (ACGIH, 1991; (Ashford, 1994a; Budavari, 2000).
Soluble in benzene (Budavari, 2000).

OTHER

Soluble in oil (HSDB , 2001).

OCTANOL/WATER PARTITION COEFFICIENT

Log Kow = 0.6 (calculated) (HSDB , 2001)

Log Kow = 1.36 (calculated) (ATSDR, 1997; IPCS, 1999a)

Log Kow = 1.38 (calculated) (Howard, 1989)

HENRY'S CONSTANT

1.07x10(-2) atm-m(3)/mol (Howard, 1989)

1.2 atm-m(3)/mol (at 10 degrees C) (ATSDR, 1997)

3.55x10(5) atm (at 20 degrees C) (Corbitt, 1990)

0.0560 atm/m(3)-mole (HSDB , 2001)

SPECTRAL CONSTANTS

10973 (Sadtler Research Laboratories IR Grating Collection) (HSDB , 2001)

MASS

42 (Atlas of Mass Spectral Data, John Wiley & Sons, New York) (HSDB , 2001)

OTHER/PHYSICAL

ODOR THRESHOLD

"The actual vapor concentrations that can be detected have never been adequately determined and vary from one individual to another, in impurities in the sample, and probably in duration of exposure" (Bingham et al, 2001a).
"Although vinyl chloride has a faintly sweet odor at high concentrations, the odor is of no value in preventing excessive exposure" (Bingham et al, 2001a).
3.4 ppm in water (ATSDR, 1993; Sittig, 1991)
260 ppm in air (CHRIS , 2001; Sittig, 1991)
3000 ppm in air (ATSDR, 1997; Sittig, 1991)
4000 ppm in air (Sittig, 1991)

ORGANIC CARBON PARTITION COEFFICIENT

Log Koc = 1.99 (ATSDR, 1997)

SURFACE TENSION

23.1 dyn/cm (at -20 degrees C) (HSDB , 2001)
16.0 dynes/cm; 0.0160 N/m (estimated) (at 25 degrees C) (CHRIS , 2001)

CRITICAL PRESSURE

774.7 psia; 52.7 atm; 5.34 MN/m(2); 5341.37 kPa abs (CGA, 1999; CHRIS , 2001)
5600 kPa (IPCS, 1999a)
5755 kPa; 57.55 bar; 834.7 psia; 56.8 atm (HSDB , 2001)

CRITICAL TEMPERATURE

156 degrees C (IPCS, 1999a)
158.4 degrees C; 317.1 degrees F; 431.6 K (CHRIS , 2001)
151.5 degrees C; 304.6 degrees F; 424.61 K (HSDB , 2001)

HEAT OF COMBUSTION

-8136 Btu/lb; -4520 cal/g; -189.1X10(5) J/kg (CHRIS , 2001)

HEAT OF FUSION

75.94 kJ/kg; 32.65 Btu/lb (at -153.9 degrees C) (CGA, 1999)
18.14 cal/g (CHRIS , 2001)
75.94 kJ/kg; 32.65 Btu/lb (at melting point) (CGA, 1999)

HEAT OF POLYMERIZATION

-729Btu/lb; -405 cal/g; 16.9X10(5) J/kg (CHRIS , 2001)

INDEX OF REFRACTION

1.3700 (at 20 degrees C/D) (Budavari, 2000; HSDB , 2001)

IONIZATION POTENTIAL

9.99 eV (NIOSH , 2001)

LIQUID WATER INTERFACIAL TENSION

30 dynes/cm; 0.03 N/m (estimated) (at 20 degrees C) (CHRIS , 2001)

VISCOSITY

GAS: 0.01072 cP (at 20 degrees C and 101.325 kPa) (HSDB , 2001)
LIQUID: 0.280 cP (at -20 degrees C) (HSDB , 2001)

-REFERENCES

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

40 CFR 372.28: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Lower thresholds for chemicals of special concern. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO). Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.

40 CFR 372.65: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Chemicals and Chemical Categories to which this part applies. National Archives and Records Association (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.

49 CFR 172.101 - App. B: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials, Appendix B: List of Marine Pollutants. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 29, 2005.

49 CFR 172.101: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 11, 2005.

62 FR 58840: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 1997.

65 FR 14186: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

65 FR 39264: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

65 FR 77866: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

66 FR 21940: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2001.

67 FR 7164: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2002.

68 FR 42710: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2003.

69 FR 54144: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2004.

AAR: Emergency Handling of Hazardous Material in Surface Transportation, Hazardous Materials Systems (BOE), Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC, 1998.

AAR: Emergency Handling of Hazardous Materials in Surface Transportation, Bureau of Explosives, Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC, 2000.

AAR: Emergency Handling of Hazardous Materials in Surface Transportation, Bureau of Exposives, Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC, 1998a.

ACGIH: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Value and Biological Exposure Indices, 6th ed, Am Conference of Govt Ind Hyg, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, 1991b.

ACGIH: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 6th ed, Am Conference of Govt Ind Hyg, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, 1991a.

ACGIH: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, Vol 3, 6th ed, Am Conference of Govt Ind Hyg, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, 1992.

ACGIHACGIH: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 6th. Am Conference of Govt Ind Hyg, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, 1991.

AIHA: 2006 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines and Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook, American Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006.

AMA Department of DrugsAMA Department of Drugs: AMA Evaluations Subscription, American Medical Association, Chicago, IL, 1992.

ATSDR: Registry. Toxicological Profile for Vinyl Chloride, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, US Dept of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, 1993.

ATSDR: Toxicological Profile for Vinyl Chloride, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, US Dept of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, 1989.

ATSDR: Toxicological Profile for Vinyl Chloride, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, US Dept of Health and Human Services, Atlanta, GA, 1997.

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists : ACGIH 2010 Threshold Limit Values (TLVs(R)) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs(R)), American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH, 2010.

Anderson A Jr: The perils of plastic. Med Dimensions 1974; 19-22.

Anderson D, Hodge MCE, & Purchase IFH: Dominant lethal studies with halogenated olefins vinyl chloride and vinylidene dichloride in male CD-1 mice. Environ Health Perspect 1977; 21:71-78.

Anderson D: Chromosomal analyses in vinyl chloride exposed workers: results from analysis 18 and 42 months after an initial sampling. Mutat Res 1980; 79:151-162.

Anon: FDA Public Health Notification: PVC devices containing the plasticizer DEHP. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Devices and Radiological Health. Rockville, MD. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/safety/dehp.html.

Ansell-Edmont: SpecWare Chemical Application and Recommendation Guide. Ansell-Edmont. Coshocton, OH. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.ansellpro.com/specware. As accessed 10/31/2001.

Ashford R: Ashford's Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals, Wavelength Publications Ltd, London, England, 1994a.

Ashford RD: Ashford's Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals, Wavelength Publications, London, United Kingdom, 1994.

Barlow SM & Sullivan FM: Reproductive Hazards of Industrial Chemicals, Academic Press, New York, NY, 1982.

Baselt RC: Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 2nd ed, Biomedical Publications, Davis, CA, 1982.

Baselt RC: Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 5th ed, Chemical Toxiology Institute, Foster City, CA, 2000a.

Baselt RC: Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man. 5th ed, Chemical Toxicology Institute, Foster City, CA, 2000.

Bata Shoe Company: Industrial Footwear Catalog, Bata Shoe Company, Belcamp, MD, 1995.

Baxter PJ, Adams PH, & Aw TC: Hunter's Diseases of Occupations, 9th ed, Oxford University Press Inc, New York, NY, 2000.

Baxter PJ, Adams PH, & Aw TC: Hunter's Diseases of Occupations, 9th ed, Oxford University Press, Inc, New York, NY, 2000a.

Belej MA, Smith DG, & Aviado DM: Toxicity of aerosol propellant in the respiratory and circulatory systems. IV: Cardiotoxicity in the monkey. Toxicology 1974; 2:381-395.

Belli S, Bertazzi PA, & Comba P: A cohort study on vinyl chloride manufacturers in Italy: study design and preliminary results. Cancer Lett 1987; 35:253-261.

Best Manufacturing: ChemRest Chemical Resistance Guide. Best Manufacturing. Menlo, GA. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.chemrest.com. As accessed 10/8/2002.

Best Manufacturing: Degradation and Permeation Data. Best Manufacturing. Menlo, GA. 2004. Available from URL: http://www.chemrest.com/DomesticPrep2/. As accessed 04/09/2004.

Bingham E, Chorssen B, & Powell CH: Patty's Toxicology, Vol 3. 5th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2001.

Bingham E, Cohrssen B, & Powell CH: Patty's Toxicology, Vols. 1, 5 and 8. 5th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2001a.

Boffetta P, Matisane L, Mundt KA, et al: Meta-analysis of studies of occupational exposure to vinyl chloride in relation to cancer mortality. Scand J Work Environ Health 2003; 29:220-229.

Bosetti C, La Vecchia C, Lipworth L, et al: Occupational exposure to vinyl chloride and cancer risk: a review of the epidemiologic literature. Eur J Cancer Prev 2003; 12:427-430.

Boss Manufacturing Company: Work Gloves, Boss Manufacturing Company, Kewanee, IL, 1998.

Brinker K, Lumia M, Markiewicz KV, et al: Assessment of emergency responders after a vinyl chloride release from a train derailment - New Jersey, 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2015; 63(53):1233-1237.

Brophy GM, Bell R, Claassen J, et al: Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2012; 17(1):3-23.

Budavari S: The Merck Index, 12th ed, Merck & Co, Inc, Whitehouse Station, NJ, USA, 2000a.

Burgess JL, Kirk M, Borron SW, et al: Emergency department hazardous materials protocol for contaminated patients. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 34(2):205-212.

CCOHS: Chemical Hazard Summary on Vinyl Chloride, No 44, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, Hamilton, Ontario, 1988.

CCOHS: Safety Infogram; K11 PPE -- Chemical Protective Gloves, Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety, Hamilton, Ontario, 1989.

CGA: Handbook of Compressed Gases, 4th ed, Compressed Gas Association, Inc, Van Nostrand Reinhold, Inc, New York, NY, 1999a.

CGA: Handbook of Compressed Gases, 4th ed, Compressed Gas Association, Inc, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1999.

CHRIS : CHRIS Hazardous Chemical Data. US Department of Transportation, US Coast Guard. Washington, DC (Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Castro CE, Riebeth DM, & Belser NO: Biodehalogenation -- the metabolism of vinyl chloride by methylosinus trichosporium OB-3b -- a sequential oxidative and reductive pathway through chloroethylene oxide. Environ Toxicol Chem 1992; 11:749-755.

Castro CE, Wade RS, & Riebeth DM: Biodehalogenation -- rapid metabolism of vinyl chloride by a soil Pseudomonas sp direct hydrolysis of a vinyl C-Cl bond. Environ Toxicol Chem 1992a; 11:757-764.

Chamberlain JM, Altieri MA, & Futterman C: A prospective, randomized study comparing intramuscular midazolam with intravenous diazepam for the treatment of seizures in children. Ped Emerg Care 1997; 13:92-94.

ChemFab Corporation: Chemical Permeation Guide Challenge Protective Clothing Fabrics, ChemFab Corporation, Merrimack, NH, 1993.

Chemsoft(R) : Electronic EPA, NIOSH, & OSHA Methods(TM). Windowchem(TM) Software. Fairfield, CA. 2000.

Chin RF , Neville BG , Peckham C , et al: Treatment of community-onset, childhood convulsive status epilepticus: a prospective, population-based study. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7(8):696-703.

Choonara IA & Rane A: Therapeutic drug monitoring of anticonvulsants state of the art. Clin Pharmacokinet 1990; 18:318-328.

Clayton GD & Clayton FE: Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Volume 2A-2E, Toxicology, 4th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1994.

Clemmenson J: Mutagenicity and teratogenicity of vinyl chloride monomer (VCM): epidemiological evidence. Mutat Res 1982; 98:97-100.

Cogliano VJ, Hiatt GFS, & Den A: Quantitative cancer assessment for vinyl chloride -- indications of early-life sensitivity. Toxicology 1996; 111:21-28.

Comasec Safety, Inc.: Chemical Resistance to Permeation Chart. Comasec Safety, Inc.. Enfield, CT. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.comasec.com/webcomasec/english/catalogue/mtabgb.html. As accessed 4/28/2003.

Comasec Safety, Inc.: Product Literature, Comasec Safety, Inc., Enfield, CT, 2003a.

Corbitt RA: Standard Handbook of Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co, New York, NY, 1990, pp 5.154.

Cordasco EM, Demeter SZ, & Uerkay J: Pulmonary manifestations of vinyl and polyvinyl chloride (interstitial lung disease). Chest 1980; 78:828-834.

DFG: List of MAK and BAT Values 2002, Report No. 38, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazards of Chemical Compounds in the Work Area, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany, 2002.

DPIMR: Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials Report. DPIMR: DPIMR 1989; 9:7-48.

Dahar WS, Bond GG, & McLaren EA: Update to vinyl chloride mortality study. J Occup Med 1988; 30:648-649.

Danziger H: Accidental poisoning by vinyl chloride. A report of two cases. Canad Med Assoc J 1960; 82:828-830.

Devivo I, Marion MJ, & Smith SJ: Mutant c-ki-ras p21 protein in chemical carcinogenesis in humans exposed to vinyl chloride. Cancer Cause Control 1994; 5:273-278.

Dietz A, Langbein G, & Permanetter W: Das Vinyl chloridinduzierte heaptozellulare karzinom (German). Klin Wochensehr 1985; 63:325-331.

Doll R: Effects of exposure to vinyl chloride. Scand J Work Environ Health 1988; 14:61-78.

Doss M, Lange CE, & Veltman G: Vinyl chloride-induced hepatic coproporphyrinuria with transition to chronic hepatic porphyria. Klin Wochenschr 1984; 62:175-178.

Dragun J: The Soil Chemistry of Hazardous Materials, Hazardous Materials Control Research Institute, Silver Spring, MD, 1988.

Du CL & Wang JD: Increased morbidity odds ratio of primary liver cancer and cirrhosis of the liver among vinyl chloride monomer workers. Occup Environ Med 1998; 55:528-532.

DuPont: DuPont Suit Smart: Interactive Tool for the Selection of Protective Apparel. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2002. Available from URL: http://personalprotection.dupont.com/protectiveapparel/suitsmart/smartsuit2/na_english.asp. As accessed 10/31/2002.

DuPont: Permeation Guide for DuPont Tychem Protective Fabrics. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2003. Available from URL: http://personalprotection.dupont.com/en/pdf/tyvektychem/pgcomplete20030128.pdf. As accessed 4/26/2004.

DuPont: Permeation Test Results. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2002a. Available from URL: http://www.tyvekprotectiveapprl.com/databases/default.htm. As accessed 7/31/2002.

Ducatman A, Hirschhorn K, & Selikoff IJ: Vinyl chloride exposure and human chromosome aberrations. Mutat Res 1975; 31:163-168.

ECETOC: Technical Report No 31: The mutagenicity and carcinogenicity of vinyl chloride: a historical review and assessment, European Chemical Industry Ecology & Toxicology Centre, Brussels, Belgium, 1988, pp 147.

EPA: Search results for Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Inventory Chemicals. US Environmental Protection Agency, Substance Registry System, U.S. EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.epa.gov/srs/.

ERG: Emergency Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial Phase of a Dangerous Goods/Hazardous Materials Incident, U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Washington, DC, 2004.

Edmonds LD, Anderson CE, & Flynt JW: Congenital central nervous system malformations and vinyl chloride monomer exposure: A community study. Teratology 1978; 17:137-142.

Edmonds LD: Congenital malformations and vinyl chloride. Lancet 1975; 2:1098.

Elsen EA, Wegman DH, & Smith TJ: Across-shift changes in the pulmonary function of meat-wrappers and other workers in the retail food industry. Scand J Work Environ Health 1985; 11:21-26.

Ensign SA, Hyman MR, & Arp DJ: Cometabolic degradation of chlorinated alkenes by alkene monooxygenase in a propylene-grown xanthobacter strain. Appl Environ Microbiol 1992; 58:3038-3046.

Ernst P, De Guire L, & Armstrong B: Obstructive and restrictive ventilatory impairment in polyvinylchloride fabrication workers. Am J Indust Med 1988; 14:273-279.

Falk H & Portnoy B: Respiratory tract illness in meat wrappers. JAMA 1976; 235:915-917.

Finkel AJ: Hamilton and Hardy's Industrial Toxicology, 4th ed, John Wright, PSG Inc, Boston, MA, 1983.

Forman D, Bennett B, & Stafford J: Exposure to vinyl chloride and angiosarcoma of the liver: a report of the register of cases. Br J Ind Med 1985; 42:750-753.

Fucic A, Barkovic D, & Garajvr-Hovac V: A nine-year follow up study of a population occupationally exposed to vinyl chloride monomer. Mutat Res 1996; 361:49-53.

Fucic A, Hitrec V, & Garaj-Vrhovac V: Relationship between locations of chromosome breaks induced by vinyl chloride monomer and lymphocytosis. Am J Industrial Med 1995; 27:565-571.

Fucic A, Horvat D, & Dimitrovic B: Localization of breaks induced by vinyl chloride in the human chromosomes of lymphocytes. Mutat Res 1990; 243:95-99.

Grant WM & Schuman JS: Toxicology of the Eye, 4th ed, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1993.

Grieve AW, Davis P, Dhillon S, et al: A clinical review of the management of frostbite. J R Army Med Corps 2011; 157(1):73-78.

Guardian Manufacturing Group: Guardian Gloves Test Results. Guardian Manufacturing Group. Willard, OH. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.guardian-mfg.com/guardianmfg.html. As accessed 12/11/2001.

Guichard Y, Elghissassi F, & Nair J: Formation and accumulation of DNA ethenobases in adult Sprague-Dawley rats exposed to vinyl chloride. Carcinogenesis 1996; 17:1553-1559.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 1989; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 1996; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2004; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

HSDB: Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Haddad LM: Clinical Management of Poisoning and Drug Overdose, 3rd ed, Saunders Company, Philadephia, PA, 1998.

Hallam MJ, Cubison T, Dheansa B, et al: Managing frostbite. BMJ 2010; 341:c5864-.

Hansteen I-L: Effects of vinyl chloride in man: a cytogenetic follow-up study. Mutat Res 1978; 51:271-278.

Harrison R & Hathaway G: Vinyl chloride toxicity. J Clin Toxicol 1990; 28:267-286.

Hartmans S, Kaptein A, & Tramper J: Characterization of a Mycobacterium sp and a Xanthobacter sp for the removal of vinyl chloride and 1,2-dichloroethane from waste gases. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 1992; 37:796-801.

Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 3rd ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1991.

Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 4th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1996.

Hegenbarth MA & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs: Preparing for pediatric emergencies: drugs to consider. Pediatrics 2008; 121(2):433-443.

Heldaas SS, Andersen AA, & Langard S: Incidence of cancer among vinyl chloride and polyvinyl chloride workers: further evidence for an association with malignant melanoma. Br J Ind Med 1987; 44:278-280.

Hemminki K & Vineis P: Extrapolation of the evidence on teratogenicity of chemicals between humans and experimental animals: Chemicals other than drugs. Teratogen Carcinogen Mutagen 1985; 5:251-318.

Howard PH, Boethling RS, & Jarvis WF: Handbook of Environmental Degradation Rates, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1991.

Howard PH: Handbook of Environmental Fate and Exposure Data for Organic Chemicals. Volume I: Large Production and Priority Pollutants, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1989.

Hozo I, Miric D, & Bojic L: Liver angiosarcoma and hemangiopericytoma after occupational exposure to vinyl chloride monomer. Environmental Health Perspectives 2000; 108:793-795.

Hrivnak L, Rozinova Z, & Korony S: Cytogenic analysis of peripheral blood lymphocytes in workers exposed to vinyl chloride. Mutat Res 1990; 240:83-85.

Hsiao TJ, Wang JD, Yang PM, et al: Liver fibrosis in asymptomatic polyvinyl chloride workers. J Occup Environ Med 2004; 46:962-966.

Hvidberg EF & Dam M: Clinical pharmacokinetics of anticonvulsants. Clin Pharmacokinet 1976; 1:161.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: 1,3-Butadiene, Ethylene Oxide and Vinyl Halides (Vinyl Fluoride, Vinyl Chloride and Vinyl Bromide), 97, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2008.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol and 1-tert-Butoxypropan-2-ol, 88, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2006.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Household Use of Solid Fuels and High-temperature Frying, 95, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010a.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Smokeless Tobacco and Some Tobacco-specific N-Nitrosamines, 89, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2007.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some Non-heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Some Related Exposures, 92, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010.

IARC: List of all agents, mixtures and exposures evaluated to date - IARC Monographs: Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity to Humans, Volumes 1-88, 1972-PRESENT. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon, FranceAvailable from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/monoeval/crthall.html. As accessed Oct 07, 2004.

IATA: Dangerous Goods Regulations, 42nd edition (CD-ROM version). International Air Transport Association. . 2001.

ICAO: Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air, 2003-2004. International Civil Aviation Organization, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2002.

ILC Dover, Inc.: Ready 1 The Chemturion Limited Use Chemical Protective Suit, ILC Dover, Inc., Frederica, DE, 1998.

ILO : Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 4th ed. Vol 1-4. (CD ROM Version). International Labour Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. 1998.

ILO: ILO Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 3rd ed, Vol II. Parmeggiani L (Ed), International Labour Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1983.

IPCS: Environmental Health Criteria 215. Vinyl Chloride, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1999a.

IPCS: Health and Saftey Guide 109. Vinyl Chloride Health and Safety Guide, Word Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1999b.

ITI: Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual, The International Technical Information Institute, Tokyo, Japan, 1995.

Infante PF, McMichael AJ, & Wagoner J: Genetic risks of vinyl chloride. Lancet 1976; 1:734-735.

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: list of classifications, volumes 1-116. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Lyon, France. 2016. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/latest_classif.php. As accessed 2016-08-24.

International Agency for Research on Cancer: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. 2015. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/. As accessed 2015-08-06.

John JA, Smith FA, & Leong BKJ: The effects of maternally inhaled vinyl chloride on embryonal and fetal development in mice, rats and rabbits. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1977; 39:497-513.

Jones RD, Smith DM, & Thomas PG: A mortality study of vinyl chloride monomer workers employed in the United Kingdom in 1940-1974. Scand J Work Environ Health 1988; 14:153-160.

Jucker E: Toxicity of propellants. Progress Drug Res 1974; 18:365-397.

Kahn MF, Bourgeois P, & Aeschlimann A: MIxed connective tissue disease after exposure to polyvinyl chloride. J Rheumatol 1989; 16:533-535.

Kappler, Inc.: Suit Smart. Kappler, Inc.. Guntersville, AL. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.kappler.com/suitsmart/smartsuit2/na_english.asp?select=1. As accessed 7/10/2001.

Kemp S, Dalinka MK, & Schumacher HR: Acro-osteolysis: etiologic and radiologic considerations. JAMA 1986; 255:2058-2061.

Kielhorn J, Melber C, & Wahnschaffe U: Vinyl chloride: still a cause for concern. Envirnomental Health Perspectives 2000; 108:579-588.

Kimberly-Clark, Inc.: Chemical Test Results. Kimberly-Clark, Inc.. Atlanta, GA. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.kc-safety.com/tech_cres.html. As accessed 10/4/2002.

Kotseva K: Five year follow-up study of the incidence of arterial hypertension and coronary heart disease in vinyl chloride monomer and polyvinyl chloride production workers. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1996; 68:377-379.

LaCrosse-Rainfair: Safety Products, LaCrosse-Rainfair, Racine, WI, 1997.

Langard S, Rosenberg J, & Anderson A: Incidence of cancer among workers exposed to vinyl chloride in polyvinyl chloride manufacture. Occup Environ Med 2000; 57:65-68.

Laplanche A, Clavel F, & Contassot J-C: Exposure to vinyl chloride monomer: report on a cohort study. Br J Ind Med 1987; 44:711-715.

Lee H, Wang L, & Shih JF: Mutageniciey of particulates from the laboratory combustion of plastics. Mutation Research 1995; 346:135-144.

Lee HS, Ng TP, & Phoon WH: Diurnal variation in peak expiratory flow rate among polyvinyl chloride compounding workers. Br J Ind Med 1991; 48:275-278.

Lewis RA: Lewis' Dictionary of Toxicology, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1998.

Lewis RJ: Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 13th ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, NY, 1997.

Lewis RJ: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 10th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2000.

Lindbohm M, Hemminki K, & Kyyronen P: Spontaneous abortions among women employed in the plastics industry. Am J Ind Med 1985; 8:579-586.

Lloyd MH, Gauld S, & Copland L: Epidemiological study of the lung function of workers at a factory manufacturing polyvinylchloride. Br J Ind Med 1984; 41:328-333.

Loddenkemper T & Goodkin HP: Treatment of Pediatric Status Epilepticus. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2011; Epub:Epub.

MAPA Professional: Chemical Resistance Guide. MAPA North America. Columbia, TN. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.mapaglove.com/pro/ChemicalSearch.asp. As accessed 4/21/2003.

MAPA Professional: Chemical Resistance Guide. MAPA North America. Columbia, TN. 2004. Available from URL: http://www.mapaglove.com/ProductSearch.cfm?id=1. As accessed 6/10/2004.

Makk L, Creech JL, & Whelan JG: Liver damage and angio-sarcoma in vinyl chloride workers. A systematic detection program. JAMA 1974; 230:64-68.

Maltoni C, Lefemine G, & Ghieco P: Vinyl chloride carcinogenesis: current results and perspectives. Med Lav 1974; 65:421.

Manno EM: New management strategies in the treatment of status epilepticus. Mayo Clin Proc 2003; 78(4):508-518.

Mar-Mac Manufacturing, Inc: Product Literature, Protective Apparel, Mar-Mac Manufacturing, Inc., McBee, SC, 1995.

Maricq HR, Johnson MN, & Whetstone CL: Capillary abnormalities in polyvinyl chloride production workers. JAMA 1976; 236:1368-1371.

Marigold Industrial: US Chemical Resistance Chart, on-line version. Marigold Industrial. Norcross, GA. 2003. Available from URL: www.marigoldindustrial.com/charts/uschart/uschart.html. As accessed 4/14/2003.

Maroni M, Mocci F, Visentin S, et al: Periportal fibrosis and other liver ultrasonography findings in vinyl chloride workers. Occup Environ Med 2003; 60:60-65.

Mastrangelo G: Epidemiological study of pneumoconiosis in the Italian (vinyl chloride). Environ Health Perspect 1981; 41:153-157.

Matsuda T, Yagi T, & Kawanishi M: Molecular analysis of mutations induced by 2-chloroacetaldehyde, the ultimate carcinogenic form of vinyl chloride, in human cells using shuttle vectors. Carcinogenesis 1995; 16:2389-2394.

Memphis Glove Company: Permeation Guide. Memphis Glove Company. Memphis, TN. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.memphisglove.com/permeation.html. As accessed 7/2/2001.

Michot F, Bruggisser D, & Fehr H: Mikroangiopathische hamolytische anamie, erythrophagozytose und verbrauchskoagulopathie bei vinylchloridinduziertem hamangiosarkom von milz und leber (German). Schweiz Med Wschr 1987; 117:990-995.

Montgomery Safety Products: Montgomery Safety Products Chemical Resistant Glove Guide, Montgomery Safety Products, Canton, OH, 1995.

Mur JM, Mandereau L, & Deplan F: Spontaneous abortion and exposure to vinyl chloride. Lancet 1992; 339:127-128.

Murphy JV, Banwell PE, & Roberts AHN: Frostbite: pathogenesis and treatment. J Trauma 2000; 48:171-178.

NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 12th ed, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1997.

NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 13th ed., National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

NIOSH : Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 1, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 2, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2002.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 3, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2003.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 4, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2004.

Naradzay J & Barish RA: Approach to ophthalmologic emergencies. Med Clin North Am 2006; 90(2):305-328.

Nat-Wear: Protective Clothing, Hazards Chart. Nat-Wear. Miora, NY. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.natwear.com/hazchart1.htm. As accessed 7/12/2001.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Butylene Oxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648083cdbb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Dibromoethane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802796db&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 2-Ethylhexyl Chloroformate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037904e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Acrylonitrile (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648028e6a3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Adamsite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Agent BZ (3-quinuclidinyl benzilate) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ad507&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Allyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039d9ee&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Arsenic Trioxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480220305&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Automotive Gasoline Unleaded (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cc17&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Biphenyl (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1b7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bis-Chloromethyl Ether (BCME) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648022db11&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Boron Tribromide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae1d3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromine Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039732a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromoacetone (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187bf&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Calcium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae328&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Sulfide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037ff26&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Chlorobenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803a52bb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Cyanogen (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187fe&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Dimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbf3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Diphenylchloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091884e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Phosphorodichloridate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480920347&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809203e7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Germane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963906&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Hexafluoropropylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1f5&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ketene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ee7c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Malathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809639df&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Mercury Vapor (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a087&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Isothiocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a03&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a57&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802a4985&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methylchlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5f4&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c646&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN1 CAS Reg. No. 538-07-8) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN2 CAS Reg. No. 51-75-2) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN3 CAS Reg. No. 555-77-1) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Tetroxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091855b&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Trifluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008o. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e32&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perchloryl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e268&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perfluoroisobutylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008p. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dd58&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020cc0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phorate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008q. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dcc8&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene (Draft-Revised). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a08a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene Oxime (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26d&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Propargyl Alcohol (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec91&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Selenium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec55&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Silane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d523&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Strontium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sulfuryl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec7a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tear Gas (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008s. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e551&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tellurium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e2a1&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tert-Octyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008r. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5c7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tetramethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-17.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7d608&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethylacetyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008t. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5cc&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Zinc Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for n-Butyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064808f9591&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute: Expert panel report 3: guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute. Bethesda, MD. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.pdf.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, 2007.

National Research Council : Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 5, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2007.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 6, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2008.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 7, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2009.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 8, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2010.

Neese Industries, Inc.: Fabric Properties Rating Chart. Neese Industries, Inc.. Gonzales, LA. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.neeseind.com/new/TechGroup.asp?Group=Fabric+Properties&Family=Technical. As accessed 4/15/2003.

Nelson YM & Jewell WJ: Vinyl chloride biodegradation with methanotrophic attached films. J Environ Eng-ASCE 1993; 119:890-907.

Nishikawa H, Katami T, & Takahara Y: Emission of organic compounds by combustion of waste plastics involving vinyl chloride polymer. Chemosphere 1992; 12:1953-1960.

North: Chemical Resistance Comparison Chart - Protective Footwear . North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.linkpath.com/index2gisufrm.php?t=N-USA1. As accessed April 30, 2004.

North: eZ Guide Interactive Software. North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002a. Available from URL: http://www.northsafety.com/feature1.htm. As accessed 8/31/2002.

OHM/TADS : Oil and Hazardous Materials/Technical Assistance Data System. US Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC (Internet Version). Edition expires 4/30/2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

OHM/TADS: Oil and Hazardous Materials Technical Assistance Data System. US Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, D.C. (Internet Version). Edition expires 2004; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Oster RH, Carr CJ, & Krantz JC: Narcosis with vinyl chloride. Anesthesia 1947; 8:359-361.

Paddle GM: Genetic risks of vinyl chloride. Lancet 1976; 1:1079.

Peate WF: Work-related eye injuries and illnesses. Am Fam Physician 2007; 75(7):1017-1022.

Picciano DJ: Vinyl chloride cytogenetics. J Occup Med 1977; 19:527-530.

Playtex: Fits Tough Jobs Like a Glove, Playtex, Westport, CT, 1995.

Pohanish RP & Greene SA: Rapid Guide to Chemical Incompatibilities, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1997.

Popper H, Maltoni C, & Selikoff IJ: Vinyl chloride-induced hepatic lesions in man and rodents. A comparison. Liver 1981; 1:7-20.

Proctor NH & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, JB Lippincott Co, Philadelphia, PA, 1978.

Product Information: diazepam IM, IV injection, diazepam IM, IV injection. Hospira, Inc (per Manufacturer), Lake Forest, IL, 2008.

Product Information: lorazepam IM, IV injection, lorazepam IM, IV injection. Akorn, Inc, Lake Forest, IL, 2008.

RTECS : Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 1996; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

RTECS : Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Raffle PAB, Adams PH, & Baxter PJ: Hunter's Diseases of Occupations, Little, Brown & Co, Boston, MA, 1994.

Rempel D: Medical Surveillance in the Workplace. Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews 1990; 5:3.

Riordan SM, Loo CK, & Haber RW: Vinyl chloride related hepatic angiosarcoma in a polyvinyl chloride autoclave cleaner in Australia. Med J Aust 1991; 155:125-128.

River City: Protective Wear Product Literature, River City, Memphis, TN, 1995.

Rossner P: Cytogenetic analysis in workers occupationally exposed to vinyl chloride. Mutat Res 1980; 73:425-427.

S Budavari : The Merck Index, 12th ed on CD-ROM. Version 12:3a. Chapman & Hall/CRCnetBASE. Whitehouse Station, NJ. 2000.

Safety 4: North Safety Products: Chemical Protection Guide. North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.safety4.com/guide/set_guide.htm. As accessed 8/14/2002.

Salmon AG: Vinylchloride: the evidence for human carcinogenicity in different target organs. Br J Ind Med 1985; 42:73-74.

Sanotsky IV, Davtian RM, & Glushchenko VI: Study of the reproductive function in men exposed to chemicals. Gig Tr Prof Zabol 1980; 5:28-32.

Saurin JC, Taniere P, & Mion F: Primary hepatocellular carcinoma in workers exposed to vinyl chloride. Cancer 1997; 79:1671-1677.

Schardein JL: Chemically Induced Birth Defects, 3rd ed, Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York, NY, 2000.

Schwartz L, Tulipan L, & Birmingam DJ: Occupational Diseases of the Skin, Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, PA, 1957.

Scott R, Besag FMC, & Neville BGR: Buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for treatment of prolonged seizures in childhood and adolescence: a randomized trial. Lancet 1999; 353:623-626.

Servus: Norcross Safety Products, Servus Rubber, Servus, Rock Island, IL, 1995.

Sever LE & Hessol NA: Toxic effects of occupational and environmental chemicals on the testes, in: Thomas JA, Kovach KS & McLachlan JA (Eds), Endocrine Toxicology, Raven Press, New York, NY, 1985.

Short RD, Minor JL, & Winston JM: A dominant lethal study in male rats after repeated exposures to vinyl chloride or vinylidene chloride. J Toxicol Environ Health 1977; 3:965-968.

Sittig M: Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens, 3rd ed, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1991.

Smulevich VB, Fedotova IV, & Filatova VS: Increasing evidence of the rise of cancer in workers exposed to vinylchloride. Br J Ind Med 1988; 45:93-97.

Soutar CA: Epidemiology of workers exposed to PVC dust. Thorax 1980; 35:644.

Sreenath TG, Gupta P, Sharma KK, et al: Lorazepam versus diazepam-phenytoin combination in the treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children: A randomized controlled trial. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2010; 14(2):162-168.

Standard Safety Equipment: Product Literature, Standard Safety Equipment, McHenry, IL, 1995.

Stevens JJ: Meat-wrappers asthma. JAMA 1974; 227:1005.

Sugita M, Masuda Y, & Tsuchiya K: Early detection and signs of hepatoangiosarcoma among vinyl chloride workers. Am J Ind Med 1986; 10:411-417.

Tamburro CH: Health effects of vinyl chloride. Texas Rep Biol Med 1978; 37:126-144.

Theriault G, Iturra H, & Gingras S: Evaluation of the association between birth defects and exposure to ambient vinyl chloride. Teratology 1983; 27:359-370.

Tingley: Chemical Degradation for Footwear and Clothing. Tingley. South Plainfield, NJ. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.tingleyrubber.com/tingley/Guide_ChemDeg.pdf. As accessed 10/16/2002.

Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.: Chemical and Biological Tests (database). Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.. Portsmouth, NH. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.trelleborg.com/protective/. As accessed 10/18/2002.

Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.: Trellchem Chemical Protective Suits, Interactive manual & Chemical Database. Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.. Portsmouth, NH. 2001.

Trivers GE, Cawley HL, & Debenedetti VMG: Anti-p53 antibodies in sera of workers occupationally exposed to vinyl chloride. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995; 87:1400-1407.

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management: Protective Action Criteria (PAC) with AEGLs, ERPGs, & TEELs: Rev. 26 for chemicals of concern. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.hss.doe.gov/HealthSafety/WSHP/Chem_Safety/teel.html. As accessed 2011-06-27.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project : 11th Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/INDEXA5E1.HTM?objectid=32BA9724-F1F6-975E-7FCE50709CB4C932. As accessed 2011-06-27.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Discarded commercial chemical products, off-specification species, container residues, and spill residues thereof. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities 2010b; 40CFR(261.33, e-f):77-.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2011. Available from URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/index.cfm?fuseaction=iris.showSubstanceList&list_type=date. As accessed 2011-06-21.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of Radionuclides. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010a. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: The list of extremely hazardous substances and their threshold planning quantities (CAS Number Order). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010c. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-part355.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Part 1910 - Occupational safety and health standards (continued) Occupational Safety, and Health Administration's (OSHA) list of highly hazardous chemicals, toxics and reactives. Subpart Z - toxic and hazardous substances. CFR 2010 2010; Vol6(SEC1910):7-.

U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA): Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals. 29 CFR 2010 2010; 29(1910.119):348-.

United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Vinyl Acetate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6af&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

Urben PG: Bretherick's Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards, Volumes 1 & 2, 5th ed, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England, 1995.

Uzych L: Human male exposure to vinyl chloride and possible teratogenic and mutagenic risks: a review. Human Toxicol 1988; 7:517-527.

Verschueren K: Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals, 4th ed. (CD-ROM Version) , Wiley-Interscience, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, NY, 2000.

Verschueren K: Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals. 4th ed. CD-ROM version. Wiley-Interscience. Hoboken, NJ. 2001.

Viola PL: Pathology of vinyl chloride. Med Lav 1970; 61:174.

Wagoner JK: Toxicity of vinyl chloride and polyvinyl chloride: a critical review. Environ Health Perspect 1983; 52:61-66.

Walker AE: Vinyl chloride disorder. Br J Dermatol 1981; 105(Suppl 21):19.

Ward E, Boffetta P, Andersen A, et al: Update of the follow-up of mortality and cancer incidence among European workers employed in the vinyl chloride industry. Epidemiology 2001; 12:710-718.

Weihrauch M, Benick M, & Lehner G: High prevalence of K-ras-2 mutations in hepatocellular carcinomas in workers exposed to vinyl chloride. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2001; 74:405-410.

Weihrauch M, Lehnert G, & Kockerling F: P53 mutation pattern in hepatocellular carcinoma in workers exposed to vinyl chloride. Cancer 2000; 88:1030-1036.

Wells Lamont Industrial: Chemical Resistant Glove Application Chart. Wells Lamont Industrial. Morton Grove, IL. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.wellslamontindustry.com. As accessed 10/31/2002.

Whysner J, Conaway CC, & Verna L: Vinyl chloride mechanistic data and risk assessment -- DNA reactivity and cross-species quantitative risk extrapolation. Pharmacol Ther 1996; 71:7-28.

Wong O, Whorton D, & Foliart D: An industry-wide epidemiological study of vinyl chloride workers, 1942-1982. Am J Ind Med 1991; 20:317-334.

Workrite: Chemical Splash Protection Garments, Technical Data and Application Guide, W.L. Gore Material Chemical Resistance Guide, Workrite, Oxnard, CA, 1997.

Wu W, Steenland K, & Brown D: Cohort and case-control analyses of workers exposed to vinyl chloride: an update. J Occup Med 1989; 31:578-523.

Wu W: Occupational cancer epidemiology in the People's Republic of China. J Occup Med 1988; 30:968-974.

Zenz C: Occupational Medicine, 3rd ed, Mosby - Year Book, Inc, St. Louis, MO, 1994.

Zhu S, Ren X, Wan J, et al: Evaluation in vinyl chloride monomer-exposed workers and the relationship between liver lesions and gene polymorphisms of metabolic enzymes. World J Gastroenterol 2005; 11(37):5821-5827.

de Rooij C, Defourny C, Thompson RS, et al: Vinyl Chloride Marine Risk Assessment with Special Reference to the OSPARCOM Region: North Sea . Environ Monit Assess 2004; 97:57-67.

FeedBack

VINYL CHLORIDE

Classification | Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents