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TRIS(2-CHLOROETHYL)AMINE

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Classification   |    Detailed evidence-based information

Substances Included Synonyms

Therapeutic Toxic Class

    A) Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine is a potent nitrogen mustard compound. It is the most toxic of the nitrogen mustards (EPA, 1985).

Specific Substances

    A) No Synonyms were found in group or single elements
    1.2.1) MOLECULAR FORMULA
    1) C6-H12-Cl3-N

Available Forms Sources

    A) FORMS
    1) CAS 555-77-1 refers to the free base form.
    2) The hydrochloride, CAS 817-09-4, has also been used in chemotherapy, under the trade names Trimustine, Trichlormethine, Sinalost, and Trillekamin (Budavari, 1989).
    3) The acute toxicity of the two forms is virtually identical (RTECS, 1996).
    B) SOURCES
    1) Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine is prepared by reacting thionyl chloride with triethanolamine (HSDB, 1996). It does not appear to occur in nature.
    C) USES
    1) Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine has been investigated as a delayed-action military chemical warfare agent, an agricultural chemical, and a pharmaceutical agent (RTECS, 1996; EPA, 1985). The hydrochloride is an antineoplastic agent (Budavari, 1989).

Overview

Life Support

    A) This overview assumes that basic life support measures have been instituted.

Clinical Effects

    0.2.1) SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
    A) Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine is a potent nitrogen mustard compound which has been tested as a military chemical warfare agent. It is an irritant of the eyes, skin, and the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. Systemic absorption causes inhibition of cell mitosis, resulting in severe hemorrhagic diarrhea, necrotic lesions of the gastrointestinal mucosa, and bone marrow depression. Convulsions have been noted in exposed experimental animals only.
    B) Eye exposure can cause severe irritation. Concentrations that do not cause skin or respiratory tract irritation can be extremely irritating to the eyes.
    C) Dermal exposure to the liquid or vapor can cause erythema, pruritus, irritation, and delayed blister formation in erythematous areas.
    D) Vapor inhalation can cause severe respiratory tract effects, beginning with irritation of the nose and throat. Cough, hoarseness, fever, difficulty in breathing, moist rales, and bronchial pneumonia may occur.
    E) Ingestion can produce nausea and vomiting. Severe esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation may be predicted to occur following ingestion, based on this agent's other irritant properties.
    0.2.4) HEENT
    A) Conjunctivitis, as well as nose and throat irritation, may be seen.
    0.2.6) RESPIRATORY
    A) Respiratory tract irritation and chemical pneumonitis may occur.
    0.2.7) NEUROLOGIC
    A) Convulsions have been noted in exposed experimental animals.
    0.2.8) GASTROINTESTINAL
    A) Ingestion can produce nausea and vomiting. Severe esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation may occur. Hemorrhagic diarrhea and intestinal mucosal sloughing may be seen.
    0.2.13) HEMATOLOGIC
    A) Bone marrow depression may occur.
    0.2.14) DERMATOLOGIC
    A) Dermal exposure to liquid or vapor can cause erythema, pruritus, irritation, and delayed blister formation.
    0.2.20) REPRODUCTIVE
    A) The hydrochloride salt inhibited spermatogenesis in mice at usual human therapeutic doses.

Laboratory Monitoring

    A) A number of chemicals produce abnormalities of the hematopoietic system, liver, and kidneys. Monitoring complete blood count, urinalysis, and liver and kidney function tests is suggested for patients with significant exposure.
    B) If respiratory tract irritation or respiratory depression is evident, monitor arterial blood gases, chest x-ray, and pulmonary function tests.

Treatment Overview

    0.4.2) ORAL/PARENTERAL EXPOSURE
    A) Do not induce emesis.
    B) DILUTION: If no respiratory compromise is present, administer milk or water as soon as possible after ingestion. Dilution may only be helpful if performed in the first seconds to minutes after ingestion. The ideal amount is unknown; no more than 8 ounces (240 mL) in adults and 4 ounces (120 mL) in children is recommended to minimize the risk of vomiting.
    C) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL: Administer charcoal as a slurry (240 mL water/30 g charcoal). Usual dose: 25 to 100 g in adults/adolescents, 25 to 50 g in children (1 to 12 years), and 1 g/kg in infants less than 1 year old.
    D) GASTRIC LAVAGE: Consider after ingestion of a potentially life-threatening amount of poison if it can be performed soon after ingestion (generally within 1 hour). Protect airway by placement in the head down left lateral decubitus position or by endotracheal intubation. Control any seizures first.
    1) CONTRAINDICATIONS: Loss of airway protective reflexes or decreased level of consciousness in unintubated patients; following ingestion of corrosives; hydrocarbons (high aspiration potential); patients at risk of hemorrhage or gastrointestinal perforation; and trivial or non-toxic ingestion.
    E) Observe patients with ingestion carefully for the possible development of esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation or burns. If signs or symptoms of esophageal irritation or burns are present, consider endoscopy to determine the extent of injury.
    F) SEIZURES: Administer a benzodiazepine; DIAZEPAM (ADULT: 5 to 10 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 20 minutes as needed. CHILD: 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes; up to a maximum of 10 mg/dose. May repeat dose every 5 to 10 minutes as needed) or LORAZEPAM (ADULT: 2 to 4 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 10 minutes as needed, if seizures persist. CHILD: 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes, up to a maximum of 4 mg/dose; may repeat in 5 to 15 minutes as needed, if seizures continue).
    1) Consider phenobarbital or propofol if seizures recur after diazepam 30 mg (adults) or 10 mg (children greater than 5 years).
    2) Monitor for hypotension, dysrhythmias, respiratory depression, and need for endotracheal intubation. Evaluate for hypoglycemia, electrolyte disturbances, and hypoxia.
    G) Carefully observe patients with ingestion exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    0.4.3) INHALATION EXPOSURE
    A) INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
    B) ACUTE LUNG INJURY: Maintain ventilation and oxygenation and evaluate with frequent arterial blood gases and/or pulse oximetry monitoring. Early use of PEEP and mechanical ventilation may be needed.
    0.4.4) EYE EXPOSURE
    A) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.
    0.4.5) DERMAL EXPOSURE
    A) OVERVIEW
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
    2) Treat dermal irritation or burns with standard topical therapy. Patients developing dermal hypersensitivity reactions may require treatment with systemic or topical corticosteroids or antihistamines.

Range Of Toxicity

    A) The minimum lethal human dose to this agent has not been delineated.

Clinical Effects

Summary Of Exposure

    A) Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine is a potent nitrogen mustard compound which has been tested as a military chemical warfare agent. It is an irritant of the eyes, skin, and the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts. Systemic absorption causes inhibition of cell mitosis, resulting in severe hemorrhagic diarrhea, necrotic lesions of the gastrointestinal mucosa, and bone marrow depression. Convulsions have been noted in exposed experimental animals only.
    B) Eye exposure can cause severe irritation. Concentrations that do not cause skin or respiratory tract irritation can be extremely irritating to the eyes.
    C) Dermal exposure to the liquid or vapor can cause erythema, pruritus, irritation, and delayed blister formation in erythematous areas.
    D) Vapor inhalation can cause severe respiratory tract effects, beginning with irritation of the nose and throat. Cough, hoarseness, fever, difficulty in breathing, moist rales, and bronchial pneumonia may occur.
    E) Ingestion can produce nausea and vomiting. Severe esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation may be predicted to occur following ingestion, based on this agent's other irritant properties.

Vital Signs

    3.3.3) TEMPERATURE
    A) Elevated temperature may occur in serious inhalation exposures with the development of pneumonitis (EPA, 1985).

Heent

    3.4.1) SUMMARY
    A) Conjunctivitis, as well as nose and throat irritation, may be seen.
    3.4.3) EYES
    A) CONJUNCTIVITIS - Severe eye irritation may develop, even with concentrations that do not cause respiratory tract irritation (EPA, 1985; Lewis, 1992) RTECS, 1996).
    3.4.5) NOSE
    A) IRRITATION - Vapor inhalation can cause severe respiratory tract effects, beginning with irritation of the nose and throat (EPA, 1985).
    3.4.6) THROAT
    A) IRRITATION - Vapor inhalation can cause severe respiratory tract effects, beginning with irritation of the nose and throat (EPA, 1985).

Respiratory

    3.6.1) SUMMARY
    A) Respiratory tract irritation and chemical pneumonitis may occur.
    3.6.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Vapor inhalation can cause severe respiratory tract effects, beginning with irritation of the nose and throat (EPA, 1985).
    B) PNEUMONITIS
    1) Cough, hoarseness, fever, difficulty in breathing, moist rales, and bronchial pneumonia may occur (EPA, 1985).

Neurologic

    3.7.1) SUMMARY
    A) Convulsions have been noted in exposed experimental animals.
    3.7.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    a) Convulsions have been noted in exposed experimental animals only (RTECS, 1996).

Gastrointestinal

    3.8.1) SUMMARY
    A) Ingestion can produce nausea and vomiting. Severe esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation may occur. Hemorrhagic diarrhea and intestinal mucosal sloughing may be seen.
    3.8.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION
    1) Ingestion can cause irritation of the esophagus or gastrointestinal tract (EPA, 1985).
    B) NAUSEA AND VOMITING
    1) Nausea and vomiting may occur (EPA, 1985).
    C) HEMORRHAGIC DIARRHEA
    1) Systemic absorption causes inhibition of cell mitosis, resulting in severe hemorrhagic diarrhea and necrotic lesions of the gastrointestinal mucosa (EPA, 1985).
    D) VASCULAR INSUFFICIENCY OF INTESTINE
    1) Severe necrotic lesions of the mucosa of the small intestine with degenerative changes may occur (EPA, 1985).

Hematologic

    3.13.1) SUMMARY
    A) Bone marrow depression may occur.
    3.13.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) MYELOSUPPRESSION
    1) Systemic absorption causes inhibition of cell mitosis, resulting in bone marrow depression (EPA, 1985).

Dermatologic

    3.14.1) SUMMARY
    A) Dermal exposure to liquid or vapor can cause erythema, pruritus, irritation, and delayed blister formation.
    3.14.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) SKIN IRRITATION
    1) Severe dermal irritation or burns may occur (EPA, 1985).
    2) Dermal exposure to liquid or vapor can cause erythema, pruritus, irritation, and delayed blister formation in erythematous areas (EPA, 1985).

Reproductive

    3.20.1) SUMMARY
    A) The hydrochloride salt inhibited spermatogenesis in mice at usual human therapeutic doses.
    3.20.2) TERATOGENICITY
    A) LACK OF INFORMATION
    1) At the time of this review, no data were available to assess the teratogenic potential of this agent.
    3.20.3) EFFECTS IN PREGNANCY
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) ALOPECIA
    a) Reversible splanchonocrania and alopecia were produced in fetal rats by intra-amniotic injection of 1 to 5 mcg per embryo on day 18 of gestation (Sykora et al, 1981).

Carcinogenicity

    3.21.1) IARC CATEGORY
    A) IARC Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS555-77-1 (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004):
    1) Not Listed
    3.21.4) ANIMAL STUDIES
    A) CARCINOMA
    1) Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine is considered carcinogenic by RTECS criteria. With subcutaneous application, tumors were observed at the site of application (RTECS, 1996).
    B) SARCOMA
    1) The hydrochloride produced sarcomas at the sites of injection in rats when administered the compound SC at 0.1 to 1.0 mg/kg/day for 6 months (Sykora et al, 1981).

Genotoxicity

    A) As an alkylating agent, tris(2-chloroethyl)amine would be expected to be genotoxic. DNA inhibition was seen in mammalian cells. Mutations were noted in E. coli and hamster lung cells. Sex chromosome loss/nondisjunction was observed in D. melanogaster.

Laboratory Monitoring

Monitoring Parameters Levels

    4.1.1) SUMMARY
    A) A number of chemicals produce abnormalities of the hematopoietic system, liver, and kidneys. Monitoring complete blood count, urinalysis, and liver and kidney function tests is suggested for patients with significant exposure.
    B) If respiratory tract irritation or respiratory depression is evident, monitor arterial blood gases, chest x-ray, and pulmonary function tests.
    4.1.2) SERUM/BLOOD
    A) BLOOD/SERUM CHEMISTRY
    1) A number of chemicals produce abnormalities of the hematopoietic system, liver, and kidneys. Monitoring complete blood count and liver and kidney function tests is suggested for patients with significant exposure.
    4.1.3) URINE
    A) URINALYSIS
    1) A number of chemicals produce abnormalities of the hematopoietic system, liver, and kidneys. Monitoring urinalysis is suggested for patients with significant exposure.
    4.1.4) OTHER
    A) OTHER
    1) PULMONARY FUNCTION TESTS
    a) If respiratory tract irritation is present, it may be useful to monitor pulmonary function tests.
    2) MONITORING
    a) If respiratory tract irritation is present, monitor arterial blood gases and chest x-ray.

Radiographic Studies

    A) CHEST RADIOGRAPH
    1) If respiratory tract irritation is present, monitor chest x-ray.

Treatment

Life Support

    A) Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

Patient Disposition

    6.3.1) DISPOSITION/ORAL EXPOSURE
    6.3.1.5) OBSERVATION CRITERIA/ORAL
    A) Patients symptomatic following exposure should be observed in a controlled setting until all signs and symptoms have fully resolved.

Monitoring

    A) A number of chemicals produce abnormalities of the hematopoietic system, liver, and kidneys. Monitoring complete blood count, urinalysis, and liver and kidney function tests is suggested for patients with significant exposure.
    B) If respiratory tract irritation or respiratory depression is evident, monitor arterial blood gases, chest x-ray, and pulmonary function tests.

Oral Exposure

    6.5.1) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION/PREHOSPITAL
    A) GENERAL -
    1) Observe patients with significant exposure and systemic absorption for the development of gastrointestinal mucosal sloughing, hemorrhagic diarrhea, and bone marrow depression. Transfusion therapy could be required. Long-term follow-up for potential tumor development may be required.
    2) Induced emesis should be avoided in ingestions, and gastric lavage done only with caution.
    B) INHALATION EXPOSURE -
    1) INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
    2) ACUTE LUNG INJURY: Maintain ventilation and oxygenation and evaluate with frequent arterial blood gases and/or pulse oximetry monitoring. Early use of PEEP and mechanical ventilation may be needed.
    C) DERMAL EXPOSURE -
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
    D) EYE EXPOSURE -
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.
    E) ORAL EXPOSURE -
    1) Do not induce emesis.
    2) DILUTION: If no respiratory compromise is present, administer milk or water as soon as possible after ingestion. Dilution may only be helpful if performed in the first seconds to minutes after ingestion. The ideal amount is unknown; no more than 8 ounces (240 mL) in adults and 4 ounces (120 mL) in children is recommended to minimize the risk of vomiting.
    3) Observe patients with ingestion carefully for the possible development of esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation or burns. If signs or symptoms of esophageal irritation or burns are present, consider endoscopy to determine the extent of injury.
    4) SEIZURES: Administer a benzodiazepine; DIAZEPAM (ADULT: 5 to 10 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 20 minutes as needed. CHILD: 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes; up to a maximum of 10 mg/dose. May repeat dose every 5 to 10 minutes as needed) or LORAZEPAM (ADULT: 2 to 4 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 10 minutes as needed, if seizures persist. CHILD: 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes, up to a maximum of 4 mg/dose; may repeat in 5 to 15 minutes as needed, if seizures continue).
    a) Consider phenobarbital or propofol if seizures recur after diazepam 30 mg (adults) or 10 mg (children greater than 5 years).
    b) Monitor for hypotension, dysrhythmias, respiratory depression, and need for endotracheal intubation. Evaluate for hypoglycemia, electrolyte disturbances, and hypoxia.
    5) Carefully observe patients with ingestion exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    6.5.2) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION
    A) EMESIS/NOT-RECOMMENDED
    1) Do not induce emesis.
    B) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL
    1) CHARCOAL ADMINISTRATION
    a) Consider administration of activated charcoal after a potentially toxic ingestion (Chyka et al, 2005). Administer charcoal as an aqueous slurry; most effective when administered within one hour of ingestion.
    2) CHARCOAL DOSE
    a) Use a minimum of 240 milliliters of water per 30 grams charcoal (FDA, 1985). Optimum dose not established; usual dose is 25 to 100 grams in adults and adolescents; 25 to 50 grams in children aged 1 to 12 years (or 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram body weight) ; and 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram in infants up to 1 year old (Chyka et al, 2005).
    1) Routine use of a cathartic with activated charcoal is NOT recommended as there is no evidence that cathartics reduce drug absorption and cathartics are known to cause adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, electrolyte imbalances and occasionally hypotension (None Listed, 2004).
    b) ADVERSE EFFECTS/CONTRAINDICATIONS
    1) Complications: emesis, aspiration (Chyka et al, 2005). Aspiration may be complicated by acute respiratory failure, ARDS, bronchiolitis obliterans or chronic lung disease (Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002; Pollack et al, 1981; Harris & Filandrinos, 1993; Elliot et al, 1989; Rau et al, 1988; Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002). Refer to the ACTIVATED CHARCOAL/TREATMENT management for further information.
    2) Contraindications: unprotected airway (increases risk/severity of aspiration) , nonfunctioning gastrointestinal tract, uncontrolled vomiting, and ingestion of most hydrocarbons (Chyka et al, 2005).
    C) GASTRIC LAVAGE
    1) Significant esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation or burns may occur following ingestion. The possible benefit of early removal of some ingested material by cautious gastric lavage must be weighed against potential complications of bleeding or perforation.
    2) INDICATIONS: Consider gastric lavage with a large-bore orogastric tube (ADULT: 36 to 40 French or 30 English gauge tube {external diameter 12 to 13.3 mm}; CHILD: 24 to 28 French {diameter 7.8 to 9.3 mm}) after a potentially life threatening ingestion if it can be performed soon after ingestion (generally within 60 minutes).
    a) Consider lavage more than 60 minutes after ingestion of sustained-release formulations and substances known to form bezoars or concretions.
    3) PRECAUTIONS:
    a) SEIZURE CONTROL: Is mandatory prior to gastric lavage.
    b) AIRWAY PROTECTION: Place patients in the head down left lateral decubitus position, with suction available. Patients with depressed mental status should be intubated with a cuffed endotracheal tube prior to lavage.
    4) LAVAGE FLUID:
    a) Use small aliquots of liquid. Lavage with 200 to 300 milliliters warm tap water (preferably 38 degrees Celsius) or saline per wash (in older children or adults) and 10 milliliters/kilogram body weight of normal saline in young children(Vale et al, 2004) and repeat until lavage return is clear.
    b) The volume of lavage return should approximate amount of fluid given to avoid fluid-electrolyte imbalance.
    c) CAUTION: Water should be avoided in young children because of the risk of electrolyte imbalance and water intoxication. Warm fluids avoid the risk of hypothermia in very young children and the elderly.
    5) COMPLICATIONS:
    a) Complications of gastric lavage have included: aspiration pneumonia, hypoxia, hypercapnia, mechanical injury to the throat, esophagus, or stomach, fluid and electrolyte imbalance (Vale, 1997). Combative patients may be at greater risk for complications (Caravati et al, 2001).
    b) Gastric lavage can cause significant morbidity; it should NOT be performed routinely in all poisoned patients (Vale, 1997).
    6) CONTRAINDICATIONS:
    a) Loss of airway protective reflexes or decreased level of consciousness if patient is not intubated, following ingestion of corrosive substances, hydrocarbons (high aspiration potential), patients at risk of hemorrhage or gastrointestinal perforation, or trivial or non-toxic ingestion.
    6.5.3) TREATMENT
    A) DILUTION
    1) DILUTION: If no respiratory compromise is present, administer milk or water as soon as possible after ingestion. Dilution may only be helpful if performed in the first seconds to minutes after ingestion. The ideal amount is unknown; no more than 8 ounces (240 mL) in adults and 4 ounces (120 mL) in children is recommended to minimize the risk of vomiting (Caravati, 2004).
    B) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Observe patients with ingestion carefully for the possible development of esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation or burns. If signs or symptoms of esophageal irritation or burns are present, consider endoscopy to determine the extent of injury.
    2) Monitor stools for the development of occult bleeding or hemorrhagic diarrhea.
    C) HEMORRHAGE
    1) Carefully monitor vital signs, occult blood losses, complete blood count, and platelet count.
    2) If hemorrhage or bone marrow depression occur, transfusion with whole blood or blood components may be required.
    D) SEIZURE
    1) SUMMARY
    a) Attempt initial control with a benzodiazepine (eg, diazepam, lorazepam). If seizures persist or recur, administer phenobarbital or propofol.
    b) Monitor for respiratory depression, hypotension, and dysrhythmias. Endotracheal intubation should be performed in patients with persistent seizures.
    c) Evaluate for hypoxia, electrolyte disturbances, and hypoglycemia (or, if immediate bedside glucose testing is not available, treat with intravenous dextrose).
    2) DIAZEPAM
    a) ADULT DOSE: Initially 5 to 10 mg IV, OR 0.15 mg/kg IV up to 10 mg per dose up to a rate of 5 mg/minute; may be repeated every 5 to 20 minutes as needed (Brophy et al, 2012; Prod Info diazepam IM, IV injection, 2008; Manno, 2003).
    b) PEDIATRIC DOSE: 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes; up to a maximum of 10 mg/dose. May repeat dose every 5 to 10 minutes as needed (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011; Hegenbarth & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs, 2008).
    c) Monitor for hypotension, respiratory depression, and the need for endotracheal intubation. Consider a second agent if seizures persist or recur after repeated doses of diazepam .
    3) NO INTRAVENOUS ACCESS
    a) DIAZEPAM may be given rectally or intramuscularly (Manno, 2003). RECTAL DOSE: CHILD: Greater than 12 years: 0.2 mg/kg; 6 to 11 years: 0.3 mg/kg; 2 to 5 years: 0.5 mg/kg (Brophy et al, 2012).
    b) MIDAZOLAM has been used intramuscularly and intranasally, particularly in children when intravenous access has not been established. ADULT DOSE: 0.2 mg/kg IM, up to a maximum dose of 10 mg (Brophy et al, 2012). PEDIATRIC DOSE: INTRAMUSCULAR: 0.2 mg/kg IM, up to a maximum dose of 7 mg (Chamberlain et al, 1997) OR 10 mg IM (weight greater than 40 kg); 5 mg IM (weight 13 to 40 kg); INTRANASAL: 0.2 to 0.5 mg/kg up to a maximum of 10 mg/dose (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011; Brophy et al, 2012). BUCCAL midazolam, 10 mg, has been used in adolescents and older children (5-years-old or more) to control seizures when intravenous access was not established (Scott et al, 1999).
    4) LORAZEPAM
    a) MAXIMUM RATE: The rate of intravenous administration of lorazepam should not exceed 2 mg/min (Brophy et al, 2012; Prod Info lorazepam IM, IV injection, 2008).
    b) ADULT DOSE: 2 to 4 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 10 minutes as needed, if seizures persist (Manno, 2003; Brophy et al, 2012).
    c) PEDIATRIC DOSE: 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes, up to a maximum of 4 mg/dose; may repeat in 5 to 15 minutes as needed, if seizures continue (Brophy et al, 2012; Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011; Hegenbarth & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs, 2008; Sreenath et al, 2009; Chin et al, 2008).
    5) PHENOBARBITAL
    a) ADULT LOADING DOSE: 20 mg/kg IV at an infusion rate of 50 to 100 mg/minute IV. An additional 5 to 10 mg/kg dose may be given 10 minutes after loading infusion if seizures persist or recur (Brophy et al, 2012).
    b) Patients receiving high doses will require endotracheal intubation and may require vasopressor support (Brophy et al, 2012).
    c) PEDIATRIC LOADING DOSE: 20 mg/kg may be given as single or divided application (2 mg/kg/minute in children weighing less than 40 kg up to 100 mg/min in children weighing greater than 40 kg). A plasma concentration of about 20 mg/L will be achieved by this dose (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011).
    d) REPEAT PEDIATRIC DOSE: Repeat doses of 5 to 20 mg/kg may be given every 15 to 20 minutes if seizures persist, with cardiorespiratory monitoring (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011).
    e) MONITOR: For hypotension, respiratory depression, and the need for endotracheal intubation (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011; Manno, 2003).
    f) SERUM CONCENTRATION MONITORING: Monitor serum concentrations over the next 12 to 24 hours. Therapeutic serum concentrations of phenobarbital range from 10 to 40 mcg/mL, although the optimal plasma concentration for some individuals may vary outside this range (Hvidberg & Dam, 1976; Choonara & Rane, 1990; AMA Department of Drugs, 1992).
    6) OTHER AGENTS
    a) If seizures persist after phenobarbital, propofol or pentobarbital infusion, or neuromuscular paralysis with general anesthesia (isoflurane) and continuous EEG monitoring should be considered (Manno, 2003). Other anticonvulsants can be considered (eg, valproate sodium, levetiracetam, lacosamide, topiramate) if seizures persist or recur; however, there is very little data regarding their use in toxin induced seizures, controlled trials are not available to define the optimal dosage ranges for these agents in status epilepticus (Brophy et al, 2012):
    1) VALPROATE SODIUM: ADULT DOSE: An initial dose of 20 to 40 mg/kg IV, at a rate of 3 to 6 mg/kg/minute; may give an additional dose of 20 mg/kg 10 minutes after loading infusion. PEDIATRIC DOSE: 1.5 to 3 mg/kg/minute (Brophy et al, 2012).
    2) LEVETIRACETAM: ADULT DOSE: 1000 to 3000 mg IV, at a rate of 2 to 5 mg/kg/min IV. PEDIATRIC DOSE: 20 to 60 mg/kg IV (Brophy et al, 2012; Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011).
    3) LACOSAMIDE: ADULT DOSE: 200 to 400 mg IV; 200 mg IV over 15 minutes (Brophy et al, 2012). PEDIATRIC DOSE: In one study, median starting doses of 1.3 mg/kg/day and maintenance doses of 4.7 mg/kg/day were used in children 8 years and older (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011).
    4) TOPIRAMATE: ADULT DOSE: 200 to 400 mg nasogastric/orally OR 300 to 1600 mg/day orally divided in 2 to 4 times daily (Brophy et al, 2012).
    E) OBSERVATION REGIMES
    1) Carefully observe patients with ingestion exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    2) Patients symptomatic following exposure should be observed in a controlled setting until all signs and symptoms have fully resolved.
    F) EXPERIMENTAL THERAPY
    1) The following compounds provided some protection against the lethal effects of tris(2-chloroethyl)amine in mice when injected intraperitoneally within 1 minute after subcutaneous administration of the nitrogen mustard (Szinicz et al, 1981) -
    COMPOUNDDOSEFOLD- INCREASE OF LD50
    Sodium Thiosulfate3,330 mg/kg3.9
    d-Penicillamine2,500 mg/kg2.0
    Dithiosuccinic acid2,125 mg/kg2.7

Inhalation Exposure

    6.7.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) Move patient from the toxic environment to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty in breathing develops, evaluate for hypoxia, respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis.
    B) OBSERVATION: Carefully observe patients with inhalation exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    C) INITIAL TREATMENT: Administer 100% humidified supplemental oxygen, perform endotracheal intubation and provide assisted ventilation as required. Administer inhaled beta-2 adrenergic agonists, if bronchospasm develops. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm (National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute, 2007). Exposed skin and eyes should be flushed with copious amounts of water.
    6.7.2) TREATMENT
    A) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Respiratory tract irritation, if severe, can progress to noncardiogenic pulmonary edema which may be delayed in onset up to 24 to 72 hours after exposure in some cases.
    2) There are no controlled studies indicating that early administration of corticosteroids can prevent the development of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema in patients with inhalation exposure to respiratory irritant substances, and long-term use may cause adverse effects (Boysen & Modell, 1989).
    a) However, based on anecdotal experience, some clinicians do recommend early administration of corticosteroids (such as methylprednisolone 1 gram intravenously as a single dose) in an attempt to prevent the later development of pulmonary edema.
    1) Anecdotal experience with dimethyl sulfate inhalation showed possible benefit of methylprednisolone in the TREATMENT of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema (Ip et al, 1989).
    3) Anecdotal experience also indicated that systemic corticosteroids may have possible efficacy in the TREATMENT of drug-induced noncardiogenic pulmonary edema (Zitnik & Cooper, 1990; Stentoft, 1990; Chudnofsky & Otten, 1989) or noncardiogenic pulmonary edema developing after cardiopulmonary bypass (Maggart & Stewart, 1987).
    4) It is not clear from the published literature that administration of systemic corticosteroids early following inhalation exposure to respiratory irritant substances can PREVENT the development of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. The decision to administer or withhold corticosteroids in this setting must currently be made on clinical grounds.
    B) ACUTE LUNG INJURY
    1) ONSET: Onset of acute lung injury after toxic exposure may be delayed up to 24 to 72 hours after exposure in some cases.
    2) NON-PHARMACOLOGIC TREATMENT: The treatment of acute lung injury is primarily supportive (Cataletto, 2012). Maintain adequate ventilation and oxygenation with frequent monitoring of arterial blood gases and/or pulse oximetry. If a high FIO2 is required to maintain adequate oxygenation, mechanical ventilation and positive-end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) may be required; ventilation with small tidal volumes (6 mL/kg) is preferred if ARDS develops (Haas, 2011; Stolbach & Hoffman, 2011).
    a) To minimize barotrauma and other complications, use the lowest amount of PEEP possible while maintaining adequate oxygenation. Use of smaller tidal volumes (6 mL/kg) and lower plateau pressures (30 cm water or less) has been associated with decreased mortality and more rapid weaning from mechanical ventilation in patients with ARDS (Brower et al, 2000). More treatment information may be obtained from ARDS Clinical Network website, NIH NHLBI ARDS Clinical Network Mechanical Ventilation Protocol Summary, http://www.ardsnet.org/node/77791 (NHLBI ARDS Network, 2008)
    3) FLUIDS: Crystalloid solutions must be administered judiciously. Pulmonary artery monitoring may help. In general the pulmonary artery wedge pressure should be kept relatively low while still maintaining adequate cardiac output, blood pressure and urine output (Stolbach & Hoffman, 2011).
    4) ANTIBIOTICS: Indicated only when there is evidence of infection (Artigas et al, 1998).
    5) EXPERIMENTAL THERAPY: Partial liquid ventilation has shown promise in preliminary studies (Kollef & Schuster, 1995).
    6) CALFACTANT: In a multicenter, randomized, blinded trial, endotracheal instillation of 2 doses of 80 mL/m(2) calfactant (35 mg/mL of phospholipid suspension in saline) in infants, children, and adolescents with acute lung injury resulted in acute improvement in oxygenation and lower mortality; however, no significant decrease in the course of respiratory failure measured by duration of ventilator therapy, intensive care unit, or hospital stay was noted. Adverse effects (transient hypoxia and hypotension) were more frequent in calfactant patients, but these effects were mild and did not require withdrawal from the study (Wilson et al, 2005).
    7) However, in a multicenter, randomized, controlled, and masked trial, endotracheal instillation of up to 3 doses of calfactant (30 mg) in adults only with acute lung injury/ARDS due to direct lung injury was not associated with improved oxygenation and longer term benefits compared to the placebo group. It was also associated with significant increases in hypoxia and hypotension (Willson et al, 2015).
    C) BRONCHOSPASM
    1) If bronchospasm and wheezing occur, consider treatment with inhaled sympathomimetic agents.
    D) PNEUMONITIS
    1) Antibiotic therapy may be required if superinfection develops.
    2) The role of steroids in the treatment of chemical pneumonitis is controversial.
    E) Treatment should include recommendations listed in the ORAL EXPOSURE section when appropriate.

Eye Exposure

    6.8.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) EYE IRRIGATION, ROUTINE: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, an ophthalmologic examination should be performed (Peate, 2007; Naradzay & Barish, 2006).
    6.8.2) TREATMENT
    A) OPHTHALMIC EXAMINATION AND EVALUATION
    1) CONSULTATION - Severe eye irritation may occur. Prolonged initial flushing and early ophthalmologic consultation are advisable.
    B) Treatment should include recommendations listed in the ORAL EXPOSURE section when appropriate.

Dermal Exposure

    6.9.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) DERMAL DECONTAMINATION
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and wash exposed area thoroughly with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
    6.9.2) TREATMENT
    A) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Treat dermal irritation or burns with standard topical therapy. Patients developing dermal hypersensitivity reactions may require treatment with systemic or topical corticosteroids or antihistamines.
    2) If large bullae form, significant fluid and electrolyte losses could occur. Monitor fluid status, serum electrolytes, and urine output. Replace fluids and electrolytes as necessary.
    3) If superinfection occurs in dermal lesions, treatment with topical or systemic antibiotics could be required.
    B) SKIN ABSORPTION
    1) Some chemicals can produce systemic poisoning by absorption through intact skin. Carefully observe patients with dermal exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    C) Treatment should include recommendations listed in the ORAL EXPOSURE section when appropriate.

Enhanced Elimination

    A) EFFICACY
    1) No studies have addressed the utilization of extracorporeal elimination techniques in poisoning with this agent.

Range Of Toxicity

Summary

    A) The minimum lethal human dose to this agent has not been delineated.

Minimum Lethal Exposure

    A) GENERAL/SUMMARY
    1) The minimum lethal human dose to this agent has not been delineated.

Maximum Tolerated Exposure

    A) ROUTE OF EXPOSURE
    1) Median Incapacitating Dose (Eye Injury) - 200 mg/min/m(3) (EPA, 1985)
    2) Median Incapacitating Dose (Dermal Absorption) - 2500 mg/min/m(3) (EPA, 1985)
    3) Nausea and vomiting follow ingestion of 2 to 6 mg (EPA, 1985).
    B) ACUTE
    1) The lowest toxic dose of the hydrochloride for producing leukopenia is 214 mcg/kg (RTECS, 1996).

Workplace Standards

    A) ACGIH TLV Values for CAS555-77-1 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):
    1) Not Listed

    B) NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS555-77-1 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):
    1) Not Listed

    C) Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS555-77-1 :
    1) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): Not Listed
    2) EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): Not Listed
    3) IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): Not Listed
    4) NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Not Listed
    5) MAK (DFG, 2002): Not Listed
    6) NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): Not Listed

    D) OSHA PEL Values for CAS555-77-1 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):
    1) Not Listed

Toxicity Information

    7.7.1) TOXICITY VALUES
    A) References: (RTECS, 1996; Lewis, 1992
    1) LD50- (SKIN)MOUSE:
    a) 7 mg/kg
    2) LD50- (SUBCUTANEOUS)MOUSE:
    a) 6900 mcg/kg
    3) LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
    a) 5 mg/kg
    4) LD50- (SKIN)RAT:
    a) 2 mg/kg
    5) LD50- (SUBCUTANEOUS)RAT:
    a) 2 mg/kg

Pharmacology Toxicology

Toxicologic Mechanism

    A) Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine is a direct irritant of the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes (EPA, 1985).
    B) Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine is a nitrogen mustard compound with known mutagenic and tumorigenic properties (RTECS, 1996). It is the most toxic of the nitrogen mustards (EPA, 1985).
    C) Nitrogen mustards are alkylating agents. They react with nucleic acids and proteins (ILO, 1983).

Physicochemical

Physical Characteristics

    A) Tris(2-chloroethyl)amine is a pale yellow, mobile liquid with a faint fishy or soap-like odor. The pure material may be odorless (Budavari, 1989) HSDB, 1996; (EPA, 1985).

Ph

    1) No information found at the time of this review.

Molecular Weight

    A) 204.53 (Budavari, 1989)

References

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