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THIOCYANATES

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Classification   |    Detailed evidence-based information

Substances Included Synonyms

Therapeutic Toxic Class

    A) Thiocyanates naturally occur in the body and are constituents of some food products.

Specific Substances

    1) Sulfocyanate
    2) Rhodanate
    3) Molecular Formula: Na-S-C-N
    4) CAS 302-04-5 (Thiocyanate)
    5) CAS 540-72-7 (Thiocyanate Sodium)
    6) THIOCYANATOMETHANE
    1.2.1) MOLECULAR FORMULA
    1) Na-S-C-N

Available Forms Sources

    A) SOURCES
    1) Sodium nitroprusside is metabolized to thiocyanate.
    2) Thiocyanates are normally found in the body, from metabolism of some proteins, ingestion of certain vegetables like cabbage, almonds and onions. Other vegetables such as cauliflower, turnips, tapioca, and Brussels sprouts have been shown to contain relatively high levels of thiocyanate (Olea Serrano et al, 1988).
    3) Smoking also produces thiocyanates. Thiocyanate may be used to determine smoking habits, especially in children (Luepker et al, 1981). Levels greater than 100 mcg/mL were indicative of smokers.
    B) USES
    1) Milk may be supplemented with thiocyanate 10 mg/L to give an optimal antibacterial effect of the lactoperoxidase system and appears to be safe and effective at this concentration (Dahlberg et al, 1984).
    2) Bitoscanate is a thiocyanate thought to have similar toxicity.

Overview

Life Support

    A) This overview assumes that basic life support measures have been instituted.

Clinical Effects

    0.2.1) SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
    A) The patient seriously poisoned on thiocyanate might develop iodism-type rashes, profound weakness, disorientation, mania, hallucinations, seizures, coma, and possibly death. Originally this agent was recommended as an antihypertensive, but it has fallen into disuse because of its narrow therapeutic index.
    0.2.4) HEENT
    A) Nystagmus and coryza have been reported.
    0.2.5) CARDIOVASCULAR
    A) Thiocyanates will lower blood pressure.
    0.2.6) RESPIRATORY
    A) Apnea has been reported.
    0.2.7) NEUROLOGIC
    A) Thiocyanate intoxication may result in cerebral excitement, delirium, seizures, confusion, irritability, and coma.
    0.2.8) GASTROINTESTINAL
    A) Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea as well as abdominal cramping have been reported.
    0.2.10) GENITOURINARY
    A) Anuria or albuminuria has occurred.
    0.2.14) DERMATOLOGIC
    A) Skin rashes and exfoliative dermatitis have been reported.
    0.2.15) MUSCULOSKELETAL
    A) Muscle weakness, especially of the arms and legs, is very common.
    0.2.16) ENDOCRINE
    A) Thiocyanate has a strong anti-thyroid effect and goiter has been reported.
    0.2.18) PSYCHIATRIC
    A) Toxic psychosis may occur with overdosage. This psychosis may be accompanied by visual and auditory hallucinations.
    0.2.20) REPRODUCTIVE
    A) Elevated levels of thiocyanate have been measured in umbilical cord blood and amniotic fluid of pregnant women who smoke.

Laboratory Monitoring

    A) Normal "background" blood levels are 0.03 to 0.06 mg/dL. Therapeutic blood levels may be in the 8 to 14 mg/dL range. Toxic reactions may occur under 15 mg/dL so the therapeutic range is variable and narrow.

Treatment Overview

    0.4.2) ORAL/PARENTERAL EXPOSURE
    A) Emesis NOT recommended due to potential coma and seizures.
    B) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL: Administer charcoal as a slurry (240 mL water/30 g charcoal). Usual dose: 25 to 100 g in adults/adolescents, 25 to 50 g in children (1 to 12 years), and 1 g/kg in infants less than 1 year old.
    C) GASTRIC LAVAGE: Consider after ingestion of a potentially life-threatening amount of poison if it can be performed soon after ingestion (generally within 1 hour). Protect airway by placement in the head down left lateral decubitus position or by endotracheal intubation. Control any seizures first.
    1) CONTRAINDICATIONS: Loss of airway protective reflexes or decreased level of consciousness in unintubated patients; following ingestion of corrosives; hydrocarbons (high aspiration potential); patients at risk of hemorrhage or gastrointestinal perforation; and trivial or non-toxic ingestion.
    D) HYPOTENSION: Infuse 10 to 20 mL/kg isotonic fluid. If hypotension persists, administer dopamine (5 to 20 mcg/kg/min) or norepinephrine (ADULT: begin infusion at 0.5 to 1 mcg/min; CHILD: begin infusion at 0.1 mcg/kg/min); titrate to desired response.
    E) SEIZURES: Administer a benzodiazepine; DIAZEPAM (ADULT: 5 to 10 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 20 minutes as needed. CHILD: 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes; up to a maximum of 10 mg/dose. May repeat dose every 5 to 10 minutes as needed) or LORAZEPAM (ADULT: 2 to 4 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 10 minutes as needed, if seizures persist. CHILD: 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes, up to a maximum of 4 mg/dose; may repeat in 5 to 15 minutes as needed, if seizures continue).
    1) Consider phenobarbital or propofol if seizures recur after diazepam 30 mg (adults) or 10 mg (children greater than 5 years).
    2) Monitor for hypotension, dysrhythmias, respiratory depression, and need for endotracheal intubation. Evaluate for hypoglycemia, electrolyte disturbances, and hypoxia.

Range Of Toxicity

    A) Minimal Lethal Dose - Between 15 to 30 g acutely has been reported as fatal. Fatalities have occurred with as little as 300 mg and up to 100 g in adults acutely. Chronic ingestions of 300 to 600 mg daily (total course of 9.77 to 14.9 g) have been fatal.

Clinical Effects

Summary Of Exposure

    A) The patient seriously poisoned on thiocyanate might develop iodism-type rashes, profound weakness, disorientation, mania, hallucinations, seizures, coma, and possibly death. Originally this agent was recommended as an antihypertensive, but it has fallen into disuse because of its narrow therapeutic index.

Heent

    3.4.1) SUMMARY
    A) Nystagmus and coryza have been reported.
    3.4.3) EYES
    A) NYSTAGMUS has been reported (Goldring & Chasis, 1932).
    3.4.5) NOSE
    A) CORYZA has been described (Garvin, 1939).

Cardiovascular

    3.5.1) SUMMARY
    A) Thiocyanates will lower blood pressure.
    3.5.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) HYPOTENSIVE EPISODE
    1) Thiocyanates will lower blood pressure. The blood level at which this happens in any individual patient is variable.

Respiratory

    3.6.1) SUMMARY
    A) Apnea has been reported.
    3.6.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) APNEA
    1) Apnea has been reported in serious poisonings (Christensen & Williams, 1962).

Neurologic

    3.7.1) SUMMARY
    A) Thiocyanate intoxication may result in cerebral excitement, delirium, seizures, confusion, irritability, and coma.
    3.7.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) SEIZURE
    1) Thiocyanate intoxication may result in cerebral excitement, as well as seizures and opisthotonus (Garvin, 1939).
    B) DELIRIUM
    1) Delirium, as well as confusion, disorientation, trembling (Christensen & Williams, 1962), dizziness (Barker, 1936), nervousness, and irritability (Wald et al, 1939) may occur.
    C) COMA
    1) Coma may occur in serious cases (Garvin, 1939).
    D) APHASIA
    1) Motor aphasia may also occur (Gorman et al, 1949).

Gastrointestinal

    3.8.1) SUMMARY
    A) Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea as well as abdominal cramping have been reported.
    3.8.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) GASTROENTERITIS
    1) Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, as well as abdominal discomfort and cramping, have been reported (Wald et al, 1939).
    B) GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE
    1) There has been one fatal case which showed hemorrhages of the gastric mucosa at autopsy (Garvin, 1939).

Genitourinary

    3.10.1) SUMMARY
    A) Anuria or albuminuria has occurred.
    3.10.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) ANURIA
    1) Anuria or albuminuria have been reported.

Hematologic

    3.13.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) ANEMIA
    1) Haddad and Winchester (1983) have reported aplastic anemia.

Dermatologic

    3.14.1) SUMMARY
    A) Skin rashes and exfoliative dermatitis have been reported.
    3.14.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) ERUPTION
    1) Skin rashes and exfoliative dermatitis have been reported. The effects are similar to those seen with iodism (Garvin, 1939).
    B) CONTACT DERMATITIS
    1) Contact dermatitis was reported in a waitress who handled salad plants; subsequent patch tests with radishes and with allyl isothiocyanate were positive (Mitchell & Jordan, 1974).

Musculoskeletal

    3.15.1) SUMMARY
    A) Muscle weakness, especially of the arms and legs, is very common.
    3.15.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) MUSCLE WEAKNESS
    1) Muscle weakness, especially of the arms and legs, is common with toxicity (Garvin, 1939).

Endocrine

    3.16.1) SUMMARY
    A) Thiocyanate has a strong anti-thyroid effect and goiter has been reported.
    3.16.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) GOITER
    1) Thiocyanates interfere with the uptake and concentration of iodine by the thyroid (Sollman, 1964).
    2) In chronic thiocyanate use, goiter with pain and myxedema have been reported (Gorman et al, 1949).
    3) Hershman et al (1983) have shown that in some rural areas the high consumption of vegetables rich in thiocyanate glucosides can cause endemic goiter.
    4) Dahlberg et al (1984) reported on the lack of thyroid effects in 37 healthy volunteers who were given a daily intake of 8 mg thiocyanate by way of milk. No significant changes in levels of thyroxine, triiodothyronine, and thyrotropic hormone were found.

Reproductive

    3.20.1) SUMMARY
    A) Elevated levels of thiocyanate have been measured in umbilical cord blood and amniotic fluid of pregnant women who smoke.

Carcinogenicity

    3.21.1) IARC CATEGORY
    A) IARC Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS302-04-5 (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004):
    1) Not Listed
    B) IARC Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS540-72-7 (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004):
    1) Not Listed
    3.21.3) HUMAN STUDIES
    A) LACK OF EFFECT
    1) Sodium thiocyanate has been shown to be without carcinogenic properties in chronic rat studies (Lijinsky & Kovatch, 1989).

Laboratory Monitoring

Monitoring Parameters Levels

    4.1.1) SUMMARY
    A) Normal "background" blood levels are 0.03 to 0.06 mg/dL. Therapeutic blood levels may be in the 8 to 14 mg/dL range. Toxic reactions may occur under 15 mg/dL so the therapeutic range is variable and narrow.
    4.1.2) SERUM/BLOOD
    A) BLOOD/SERUM CHEMISTRY
    1) Monitoring thiocyanate plasma levels may be clinically useful.
    4.1.4) OTHER
    A) OTHER
    1) MONITORING
    a) Monitor blood pressure for possible hypotension.
    b) Monitor for signs/symptoms of seizure activity.

Treatment

Life Support

    A) Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

Monitoring

    A) Normal "background" blood levels are 0.03 to 0.06 mg/dL. Therapeutic blood levels may be in the 8 to 14 mg/dL range. Toxic reactions may occur under 15 mg/dL so the therapeutic range is variable and narrow.

Oral Exposure

    6.5.1) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION/PREHOSPITAL
    A) EMESIS/NOT RECOMMENDED
    1) EMESIS: Ipecac-induced emesis is not recommended because of the potential for CNS depression and seizures.
    B) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL -
    1) PREHOSPITAL ACTIVATED CHARCOAL ADMINISTRATION
    a) Consider prehospital administration of activated charcoal as an aqueous slurry in patients with a potentially toxic ingestion who are awake and able to protect their airway. Activated charcoal is most effective when administered within one hour of ingestion. Administration in the prehospital setting has the potential to significantly decrease the time from toxin ingestion to activated charcoal administration, although it has not been shown to affect outcome (Alaspaa et al, 2005; Thakore & Murphy, 2002; Spiller & Rogers, 2002).
    1) In patients who are at risk for the abrupt onset of seizures or mental status depression, activated charcoal should not be administered in the prehospital setting, due to the risk of aspiration in the event of spontaneous emesis.
    2) The addition of flavoring agents (cola drinks, chocolate milk, cherry syrup) to activated charcoal improves the palatability for children and may facilitate successful administration (Guenther Skokan et al, 2001; Dagnone et al, 2002).
    2) CHARCOAL DOSE
    a) Use a minimum of 240 milliliters of water per 30 grams charcoal (FDA, 1985). Optimum dose not established; usual dose is 25 to 100 grams in adults and adolescents; 25 to 50 grams in children aged 1 to 12 years (or 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram body weight) ; and 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram in infants up to 1 year old (Chyka et al, 2005).
    1) Routine use of a cathartic with activated charcoal is NOT recommended as there is no evidence that cathartics reduce drug absorption and cathartics are known to cause adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, electrolyte imbalances and occasionally hypotension (None Listed, 2004).
    b) ADVERSE EFFECTS/CONTRAINDICATIONS
    1) Complications: emesis, aspiration (Chyka et al, 2005). Aspiration may be complicated by acute respiratory failure, ARDS, bronchiolitis obliterans or chronic lung disease (Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002; Pollack et al, 1981; Harris & Filandrinos, 1993; Elliot et al, 1989; Rau et al, 1988; Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002). Refer to the ACTIVATED CHARCOAL/TREATMENT management for further information.
    2) Contraindications: unprotected airway (increases risk/severity of aspiration) , nonfunctioning gastrointestinal tract, uncontrolled vomiting, and ingestion of most hydrocarbons (Chyka et al, 2005).
    6.5.2) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION
    A) EMESIS/NOT RECOMMENDED
    1) Emesis is NOT recommended due to potential coma or seizures from substantial thiocyanate ingestion.
    B) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL
    1) CHARCOAL ADMINISTRATION
    a) Consider administration of activated charcoal after a potentially toxic ingestion (Chyka et al, 2005). Administer charcoal as an aqueous slurry; most effective when administered within one hour of ingestion.
    2) CHARCOAL DOSE
    a) Use a minimum of 240 milliliters of water per 30 grams charcoal (FDA, 1985). Optimum dose not established; usual dose is 25 to 100 grams in adults and adolescents; 25 to 50 grams in children aged 1 to 12 years (or 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram body weight) ; and 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram in infants up to 1 year old (Chyka et al, 2005).
    1) Routine use of a cathartic with activated charcoal is NOT recommended as there is no evidence that cathartics reduce drug absorption and cathartics are known to cause adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, electrolyte imbalances and occasionally hypotension (None Listed, 2004).
    b) ADVERSE EFFECTS/CONTRAINDICATIONS
    1) Complications: emesis, aspiration (Chyka et al, 2005). Aspiration may be complicated by acute respiratory failure, ARDS, bronchiolitis obliterans or chronic lung disease (Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002; Pollack et al, 1981; Harris & Filandrinos, 1993; Elliot et al, 1989; Rau et al, 1988; Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002). Refer to the ACTIVATED CHARCOAL/TREATMENT management for further information.
    2) Contraindications: unprotected airway (increases risk/severity of aspiration) , nonfunctioning gastrointestinal tract, uncontrolled vomiting, and ingestion of most hydrocarbons (Chyka et al, 2005).
    C) GASTRIC LAVAGE
    1) INDICATIONS: Consider gastric lavage with a large-bore orogastric tube (ADULT: 36 to 40 French or 30 English gauge tube {external diameter 12 to 13.3 mm}; CHILD: 24 to 28 French {diameter 7.8 to 9.3 mm}) after a potentially life threatening ingestion if it can be performed soon after ingestion (generally within 60 minutes).
    a) Consider lavage more than 60 minutes after ingestion of sustained-release formulations and substances known to form bezoars or concretions.
    2) PRECAUTIONS:
    a) SEIZURE CONTROL: Is mandatory prior to gastric lavage.
    b) AIRWAY PROTECTION: Place patients in the head down left lateral decubitus position, with suction available. Patients with depressed mental status should be intubated with a cuffed endotracheal tube prior to lavage.
    3) LAVAGE FLUID:
    a) Use small aliquots of liquid. Lavage with 200 to 300 milliliters warm tap water (preferably 38 degrees Celsius) or saline per wash (in older children or adults) and 10 milliliters/kilogram body weight of normal saline in young children(Vale et al, 2004) and repeat until lavage return is clear.
    b) The volume of lavage return should approximate amount of fluid given to avoid fluid-electrolyte imbalance.
    c) CAUTION: Water should be avoided in young children because of the risk of electrolyte imbalance and water intoxication. Warm fluids avoid the risk of hypothermia in very young children and the elderly.
    4) COMPLICATIONS:
    a) Complications of gastric lavage have included: aspiration pneumonia, hypoxia, hypercapnia, mechanical injury to the throat, esophagus, or stomach, fluid and electrolyte imbalance (Vale, 1997). Combative patients may be at greater risk for complications (Caravati et al, 2001).
    b) Gastric lavage can cause significant morbidity; it should NOT be performed routinely in all poisoned patients (Vale, 1997).
    5) CONTRAINDICATIONS:
    a) Loss of airway protective reflexes or decreased level of consciousness if patient is not intubated, following ingestion of corrosive substances, hydrocarbons (high aspiration potential), patients at risk of hemorrhage or gastrointestinal perforation, or trivial or non-toxic ingestion.
    6.5.3) TREATMENT
    A) SUPPORT
    1) Care is generally supportive. Monitor for hypotension and CNS signs and symptoms, including seizures. Monitor for signs of respiratory depression.
    B) HYPOTENSIVE EPISODE
    1) SUMMARY
    a) Infuse 10 to 20 milliliters/kilogram of isotonic fluid and keep the patient supine. If hypotension persists, administer dopamine or norepinephrine. Consider central venous pressure monitoring to guide further fluid therapy.
    2) DOPAMINE
    a) DOSE: Begin at 5 micrograms per kilogram per minute progressing in 5 micrograms per kilogram per minute increments as needed (Prod Info dopamine hcl, 5% dextrose IV injection, 2004). If hypotension persists, dopamine may need to be discontinued and a more potent vasoconstrictor (eg, norepinephrine) should be considered (Prod Info dopamine hcl, 5% dextrose IV injection, 2004).
    b) CAUTION: If ventricular dysrhythmias occur, decrease rate of administration (Prod Info dopamine hcl, 5% dextrose IV injection, 2004). Extravasation may cause local tissue necrosis, administration through a central venous catheter is preferred (Prod Info dopamine hcl, 5% dextrose IV injection, 2004).
    3) NOREPINEPHRINE
    a) PREPARATION: 4 milligrams (1 amp) added to 1000 milliliters of diluent provides a concentration of 4 micrograms/milliliter of norepinephrine base. Norepinephrine bitartrate should be mixed in dextrose solutions (dextrose 5% in water, dextrose 5% in saline) since dextrose-containing solutions protect against excessive oxidation and subsequent potency loss. Administration in saline alone is not recommended (Prod Info norepinephrine bitartrate injection, 2005).
    b) DOSE
    1) ADULT: Dose range: 0.1 to 0.5 microgram/kilogram/minute (eg, 70 kg adult 7 to 35 mcg/min); titrate to maintain adequate blood pressure (Peberdy et al, 2010).
    2) CHILD: Dose range: 0.1 to 2 micrograms/kilogram/minute; titrate to maintain adequate blood pressure (Kleinman et al, 2010).
    3) CAUTION: Extravasation may cause local tissue ischemia, administration by central venous catheter is advised (Peberdy et al, 2010).
    C) SEIZURE
    1) SUMMARY
    a) Attempt initial control with a benzodiazepine (eg, diazepam, lorazepam). If seizures persist or recur, administer phenobarbital or propofol.
    b) Monitor for respiratory depression, hypotension, and dysrhythmias. Endotracheal intubation should be performed in patients with persistent seizures.
    c) Evaluate for hypoxia, electrolyte disturbances, and hypoglycemia (or, if immediate bedside glucose testing is not available, treat with intravenous dextrose).
    2) DIAZEPAM
    a) ADULT DOSE: Initially 5 to 10 mg IV, OR 0.15 mg/kg IV up to 10 mg per dose up to a rate of 5 mg/minute; may be repeated every 5 to 20 minutes as needed (Brophy et al, 2012; Prod Info diazepam IM, IV injection, 2008; Manno, 2003).
    b) PEDIATRIC DOSE: 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes; up to a maximum of 10 mg/dose. May repeat dose every 5 to 10 minutes as needed (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011; Hegenbarth & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs, 2008).
    c) Monitor for hypotension, respiratory depression, and the need for endotracheal intubation. Consider a second agent if seizures persist or recur after repeated doses of diazepam .
    3) NO INTRAVENOUS ACCESS
    a) DIAZEPAM may be given rectally or intramuscularly (Manno, 2003). RECTAL DOSE: CHILD: Greater than 12 years: 0.2 mg/kg; 6 to 11 years: 0.3 mg/kg; 2 to 5 years: 0.5 mg/kg (Brophy et al, 2012).
    b) MIDAZOLAM has been used intramuscularly and intranasally, particularly in children when intravenous access has not been established. ADULT DOSE: 0.2 mg/kg IM, up to a maximum dose of 10 mg (Brophy et al, 2012). PEDIATRIC DOSE: INTRAMUSCULAR: 0.2 mg/kg IM, up to a maximum dose of 7 mg (Chamberlain et al, 1997) OR 10 mg IM (weight greater than 40 kg); 5 mg IM (weight 13 to 40 kg); INTRANASAL: 0.2 to 0.5 mg/kg up to a maximum of 10 mg/dose (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011; Brophy et al, 2012). BUCCAL midazolam, 10 mg, has been used in adolescents and older children (5-years-old or more) to control seizures when intravenous access was not established (Scott et al, 1999).
    4) LORAZEPAM
    a) MAXIMUM RATE: The rate of intravenous administration of lorazepam should not exceed 2 mg/min (Brophy et al, 2012; Prod Info lorazepam IM, IV injection, 2008).
    b) ADULT DOSE: 2 to 4 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 10 minutes as needed, if seizures persist (Manno, 2003; Brophy et al, 2012).
    c) PEDIATRIC DOSE: 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes, up to a maximum of 4 mg/dose; may repeat in 5 to 15 minutes as needed, if seizures continue (Brophy et al, 2012; Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011; Hegenbarth & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs, 2008; Sreenath et al, 2009; Chin et al, 2008).

Enhanced Elimination

    A) HEMODIALYSIS
    1) Hemodialysis is the mainstay of treatment for therapeutic or accidental overdosages of thiocyanate. It removes thiocyanate at a much more rapid rate than renal excretion. One study indicated that during the first 2 hours of dialysis, 58 percent of the thiocyanate was removed, after 4 hours, 79.4 percent was removed and after 6 hours, 87.5 percent was eliminated (Danzig, 1955).

Range Of Toxicity

Summary

    A) Minimal Lethal Dose - Between 15 to 30 g acutely has been reported as fatal. Fatalities have occurred with as little as 300 mg and up to 100 g in adults acutely. Chronic ingestions of 300 to 600 mg daily (total course of 9.77 to 14.9 g) have been fatal.

Therapeutic Dose

    7.2.1) ADULT
    A) GENERAL
    1) Thiocyanates have been used in the treatment of hypertension (Christensen & Williams, 1962). The sodium salt has 20 percent more thiocyanate by weight than does the potassium salt (Christensen & Williams, 1962). This product is no longer available as an antihypertensive agent.

Minimum Lethal Exposure

    A) ACUTE
    1) Between 15 to 30 grams acutely has been reported as fatal (Gleason, 1980) but this is based on a 500 milligrams/kilogram average toxic dose in animals. Fatalities have occurred with as little as 300 milligrams and up to 100 grams in adults acutely (Garvin, 1939).
    B) CHRONIC
    1) Chronic ingestions of 300 to 600 milligrams daily (total course of 9.77 to 14.9 grams) have been fatal (Garvin, 1939).

Serum Plasma Blood Concentrations

    7.5.1) THERAPEUTIC CONCENTRATIONS
    A) THERAPEUTIC CONCENTRATION LEVELS
    1) OTHER
    a) Normal "background" blood levels are 0.03 to 0.06 mg/dL (Sollman, 1964)
    b) Normal thiocyanate plasma levels in non-smokers are reported to be 2 to 3 milligrams/liter and 9 to 12 milligrams/liter in smokers (Dahlberg et al, 1984).
    c) Mean serum thiocyanate levels following daily intake of 8 milligrams for 12 weeks were reported to be 7.0 milligrams/liter in non-smokers and 8.9 milligrams/liter in smokers (Dahlberg et al, 1984).
    7.5.2) TOXIC CONCENTRATIONS
    A) TOXIC CONCENTRATION LEVELS
    1) ACUTE
    a) Toxic thiocyanate reactions may occur when plasma levels are less than 15 mg/dL (Garvin, 1939).

Workplace Standards

    A) ACGIH TLV Values for CAS302-04-5 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):
    1) Not Listed

    B) ACGIH TLV Values for CAS540-72-7 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):
    1) Not Listed

    C) NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS302-04-5 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):
    1) Not Listed

    D) NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS540-72-7 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):
    1) Not Listed

    E) Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS302-04-5 :
    1) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): Not Listed
    2) EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): Not Listed
    3) IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): Not Listed
    4) NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Not Listed
    5) MAK (DFG, 2002): Not Listed
    6) NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): Not Listed

    F) Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS540-72-7 :
    1) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): Not Listed
    2) EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): Not Listed
    3) IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): Not Listed
    4) NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Not Listed
    5) MAK (DFG, 2002): Not Listed
    6) NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): Not Listed

    G) OSHA PEL Values for CAS302-04-5 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):
    1) Not Listed

    H) OSHA PEL Values for CAS540-72-7 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):
    1) Not Listed

Toxicity Information

    7.7.1) TOXICITY VALUES
    A) ALLYL ISOTHIOCYANATE
    1) LD50- (SUBCUTANEOUS)MOUSE:
    a) 80 mg/kg (Klesse & Lukoschek, 1955)
    2) LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
    a) 339 mg/kg (Jenner et al, 1964)
    B) SODIUM THIOCYANATE
    1) LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
    a) 764 mg/kg (Windholz, 1983)

Pharmacology Toxicology

Toxicologic Mechanism

    A) The mechanism of thiocyanate toxicity and hypotensive action is still unclear. There is some thought that the thiocyanate may interfere with chloride utilization, or have an effect on the adrenal glands.

Physicochemical

Molecular Weight

    A) Varies

References

General Bibliography

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