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SPIRULINA

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Classification   |    Detailed evidence-based information

Substances Included Synonyms

Therapeutic Toxic Class

    A) Spirulina is a microalga (cyanobacteria) rich in protein and other essential nutrients. The microalga is found in high salt alkaline water in subtropical and tropical areas. Spirulina refers to several thousand species of cyanophyta (blue-green algae), a few of which have been promoted as health food products for anorectic and other effects. There is no convincing evidence of its safe and effective use for this indication.

Specific Substances

    1) Arthrospira platensis
    2) Dihe
    3) Spirulina maxima
    4) Spirulina platensis
    5) Tecuitlatl
    6) ARTHROSPIRA PLATENSIS (BOTANIC NAME)
    7) SPIRULINA MAXIMA (BOTANIC NAME)
    8) SPIRULINA PLATENSIS (BOTANIC NAME)

Available Forms Sources

    A) FORMS
    1) Spirulina is typically available as a fine powder or tablets, generally in strengths ranging from 200 mg to 500 mg per dose.
    B) SOURCES
    1) Spirulina is from one of many species of cyanophyta (blue-green algae). Most of the products sold in the United States are derived from Spirulina platensis and Spirulina maxima (Dillon et al, 1995). It is a bacterial protein product obtained from a cyanobacterium (Dillon et al, 1995).
    C) USES
    1) Spirulina is used as a food supplement for its protein source, concentrated source of vitamins B, E and beta carotene, minerals and gamma linolenic acid. It is an expensive source of dietary protein and iron. It is promoted as a health food for weight loss. Spirulina is reported to have been used for tumor regression, chemo- and radioprotection, virus inhibition and enhancement of antibody production (Naidu et al, 1999).
    2) In the United States spirulina is sold as a health food supplement, to enhance antibody production, improve dietary hyperlipidemia, reduce gastric secretory activity and exert a preventative effect on liver triglycerides.
    3) Shastri et al (1999) report the modulatory effect of Spirulina fusiformis on lead toxicity of the testes of mice at doses of 800 mg/kg body weight. The presence of antioxidants in the spirulina may have contributed to the reduction in the lead toxicity.
    4) In animal studies, it has been shown that spirulina may prevent acute fatty liver, which may be induced by therapy with simvastatin and other "statins", when initiated prior to statin therapy. Spirulina was reported to be hypocholesterolemic in rodent studies. Further human investigations are necessary to establish the role of spirulina for the therapy of hyperlipidemia (Ble-Castillo et al, 2002).

Overview

Life Support

    A) This overview assumes that basic life support measures have been instituted.

Clinical Effects

    0.2.1) SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
    A) At the time of this review, there were no overdose data and limited adverse effects reported with spirulina use.
    B) Spirulina has been used in American traditional medicine for many years and has not generally been associated with acute or chronic toxicity. Purified spirulina products are relatively non-toxic.
    C) Adverse effects that have been reported following general use have included indigestion, vomiting, and malaise.
    D) Although generally non-toxic in humans, some forms of spirulina may contain some contaminants such as heavy metals or microbes. Metals found most frequently in the algae include mercury, lead, cadmium, and arsenic.
    0.2.5) CARDIOVASCULAR
    A) Tachycardia has been reported.
    0.2.8) GASTROINTESTINAL
    A) Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea have been reported.
    0.2.9) HEPATIC
    A) One case of increased liver function tests has been reported.
    0.2.19) IMMUNOLOGIC
    A) Allergic and anaphylactoid reactions may occur.
    0.2.20) REPRODUCTIVE
    A) When Spirulina maxima was incorporated into the diets of rats, no adverse reproductive effects were observed.

Laboratory Monitoring

    A) Monitor vital signs.
    B) Monitor liver function tests in symptomatic patients.

Treatment Overview

    0.4.2) ORAL/PARENTERAL EXPOSURE
    A) At the time of this review, spirulina is a widely used herbal product with limited reports of adverse events in human or animal studies. Gastrointestinal decontamination is generally NOT necessary.
    B) Treatment is SYMPTOMATIC and SUPPORTIVE.
    C) ALLERGIC REACTION: MILD/MODERATE: Antihistamines with or without inhaled beta agonists, corticosteroids or epinephrine. SEVERE: Oxygen, aggressive airway management, antihistamines, epinephrine, corticosteroids, ECG monitoring, and IV fluids.

Range Of Toxicity

    A) At the time of this review, no reports of toxic overdoses were found in the literature.

Clinical Effects

Summary Of Exposure

    A) At the time of this review, there were no overdose data and limited adverse effects reported with spirulina use.
    B) Spirulina has been used in American traditional medicine for many years and has not generally been associated with acute or chronic toxicity. Purified spirulina products are relatively non-toxic.
    C) Adverse effects that have been reported following general use have included indigestion, vomiting, and malaise.
    D) Although generally non-toxic in humans, some forms of spirulina may contain some contaminants such as heavy metals or microbes. Metals found most frequently in the algae include mercury, lead, cadmium, and arsenic.

Vital Signs

    3.3.5) PULSE
    A) Elevated pulse rate has been reported following spirulina supplementation ((Anon, 1998)).

Cardiovascular

    3.5.1) SUMMARY
    A) Tachycardia has been reported.
    3.5.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) TACHYARRHYTHMIA
    1) Reports of tachycardia following spirulina supplementation have been received in the FDA adverse event reporting system ((Anon, 1998)).

Neurologic

    3.7.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) MALAISE
    1) Malaise was reported in a human study on the therapeutic effects of spirulina (Chamorro et al, 1996).
    B) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM FINDING
    1) Symptoms of possible anaphylactoid response have been associated with spirulina supplementation ((Anon, 1998)). One case included hives, peripheral eosinophilia, bilateral foot drop and hand weakness, and eosinophilic necrotizing vasculitis-related mononeuritis multiplex following the use of a combination nutritional product which included spirulina.
    3.7.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) CNS EFFECTS
    a) MICE - At spirulina doses of 2 grams/kg, orally, mice exhibited an increase in total as well as ambulatory activity which peaked at 60 minutes post administration. The hyperlocomotor activity was reversed following an IP dose of haloperidol (0.5 mg/kg), a dopamine D2 receptor antagonist (Kulkarni & Ninan, 1996).

Gastrointestinal

    3.8.1) SUMMARY
    A) Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea have been reported.
    3.8.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) GASTRITIS
    1) There have been reports of abdominal cramps, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and hematemesis following spirulina supplementation ((Anon, 1998)). An unsubstantiated report of gastrointestinal bleeding was received by the FDA.
    2) Chamorro et al (1996) reported gastrointestinal effects of indigestion and vomiting in humans administered spirulina in a clinical study. The author suggests that bacterial contaminants may have contributed to the gastrointestinal effects.

Hepatic

    3.9.1) SUMMARY
    A) One case of increased liver function tests has been reported.
    3.9.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) LIVER ENZYMES ABNORMAL
    1) A report of elevated liver function tests following spirulina supplementation has been reported to the FDA through its adverse event reporting system ((Anon, 1998)).

Immunologic

    3.19.1) SUMMARY
    A) Allergic and anaphylactoid reactions may occur.
    3.19.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) ANAPHYLACTOID REACTION
    1) Symptoms of possible anaphylactoid response have been associated with spirulina supplementation ((Anon, 1998)). One case included hives, peripheral eosinophilia, and central nervous system effects following the use of a combination nutritional product which included spirulina.

Reproductive

    3.20.1) SUMMARY
    A) When Spirulina maxima was incorporated into the diets of rats, no adverse reproductive effects were observed.
    3.20.2) TERATOGENICITY
    A) LACK OF EFFECT
    1) MICE AND RATS - When spirulina alga supplements were fed to pregnant mice and hamsters (Chamorro et al, 1997; Chamorro et al, 1996) and rats (Salazar et al, 1996) in concentrations up to 30% in their diet, no adverse effects on pup weight or viability, or on normal morphologic development was reported.
    3.20.5) FERTILITY
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) When Spirulina maxima was incorporated into the diets of rats in concentrations up to 30%, no adverse reproductive effects were seen in male rats after 9 weeks, and no adverse reproductive effects were seen in female rats after 2 weeks (Salazar et al, 1996). Chamorro et al (1996) reported no adverse reproductive effects in male and female rats following short-term feeding with Spirulina maxima.

Genotoxicity

    A) No effect on mutagenicity has been seen in animal studies (Salazar et al, 1996; Chamorro et al, 1996).

Laboratory Monitoring

Monitoring Parameters Levels

    4.1.1) SUMMARY
    A) Monitor vital signs.
    B) Monitor liver function tests in symptomatic patients.
    4.1.2) SERUM/BLOOD
    A) BLOOD/SERUM CHEMISTRY
    1) Monitor electrolytes and fluid status as indicated in patients with severe vomiting and diarrhea.
    2) Monitor liver function tests in symptomatic patients.
    4.1.4) OTHER
    A) OTHER
    1) MONITORING
    a) Monitor vital signs in all symptomatic patients.

Treatment

Life Support

    A) Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

Monitoring

    A) Monitor vital signs.
    B) Monitor liver function tests in symptomatic patients.

Oral Exposure

    6.5.1) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION/PREHOSPITAL
    A) SUMMARY - At the time of this review, spirulina is a widely used herbal product with limited reports of adverse events in human or animal studies. Most cases will not require gastrointestinal decontamination. Consider only in recent, very large ingestions.
    B) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL
    1) PREHOSPITAL ACTIVATED CHARCOAL ADMINISTRATION
    a) Consider prehospital administration of activated charcoal as an aqueous slurry in patients with a potentially toxic ingestion who are awake and able to protect their airway. Activated charcoal is most effective when administered within one hour of ingestion. Administration in the prehospital setting has the potential to significantly decrease the time from toxin ingestion to activated charcoal administration, although it has not been shown to affect outcome (Alaspaa et al, 2005; Thakore & Murphy, 2002; Spiller & Rogers, 2002).
    1) In patients who are at risk for the abrupt onset of seizures or mental status depression, activated charcoal should not be administered in the prehospital setting, due to the risk of aspiration in the event of spontaneous emesis.
    2) The addition of flavoring agents (cola drinks, chocolate milk, cherry syrup) to activated charcoal improves the palatability for children and may facilitate successful administration (Guenther Skokan et al, 2001; Dagnone et al, 2002).
    2) CHARCOAL DOSE
    a) Use a minimum of 240 milliliters of water per 30 grams charcoal (FDA, 1985). Optimum dose not established; usual dose is 25 to 100 grams in adults and adolescents; 25 to 50 grams in children aged 1 to 12 years (or 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram body weight) ; and 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram in infants up to 1 year old (Chyka et al, 2005).
    1) Routine use of a cathartic with activated charcoal is NOT recommended as there is no evidence that cathartics reduce drug absorption and cathartics are known to cause adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, electrolyte imbalances and occasionally hypotension (None Listed, 2004).
    b) ADVERSE EFFECTS/CONTRAINDICATIONS
    1) Complications: emesis, aspiration (Chyka et al, 2005). Aspiration may be complicated by acute respiratory failure, ARDS, bronchiolitis obliterans or chronic lung disease (Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002; Pollack et al, 1981; Harris & Filandrinos, 1993; Elliot et al, 1989; Rau et al, 1988; Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002). Refer to the ACTIVATED CHARCOAL/TREATMENT management for further information.
    2) Contraindications: unprotected airway (increases risk/severity of aspiration) , nonfunctioning gastrointestinal tract, uncontrolled vomiting, and ingestion of most hydrocarbons (Chyka et al, 2005).
    6.5.2) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION
    A) SUMMARY
    1) At the time of this review, numerous studies have reported NO or mild adverse events following spirulina exposure. Gastrointestinal decontamination is generally NOT necessary.
    B) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL
    1) CHARCOAL ADMINISTRATION
    a) Consider administration of activated charcoal after a potentially toxic ingestion (Chyka et al, 2005). Administer charcoal as an aqueous slurry; most effective when administered within one hour of ingestion.
    2) CHARCOAL DOSE
    a) Use a minimum of 240 milliliters of water per 30 grams charcoal (FDA, 1985). Optimum dose not established; usual dose is 25 to 100 grams in adults and adolescents; 25 to 50 grams in children aged 1 to 12 years (or 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram body weight) ; and 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram in infants up to 1 year old (Chyka et al, 2005).
    1) Routine use of a cathartic with activated charcoal is NOT recommended as there is no evidence that cathartics reduce drug absorption and cathartics are known to cause adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, electrolyte imbalances and occasionally hypotension (None Listed, 2004).
    b) ADVERSE EFFECTS/CONTRAINDICATIONS
    1) Complications: emesis, aspiration (Chyka et al, 2005). Aspiration may be complicated by acute respiratory failure, ARDS, bronchiolitis obliterans or chronic lung disease (Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002; Pollack et al, 1981; Harris & Filandrinos, 1993; Elliot et al, 1989; Rau et al, 1988; Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002). Refer to the ACTIVATED CHARCOAL/TREATMENT management for further information.
    2) Contraindications: unprotected airway (increases risk/severity of aspiration) , nonfunctioning gastrointestinal tract, uncontrolled vomiting, and ingestion of most hydrocarbons (Chyka et al, 2005).
    6.5.3) TREATMENT
    A) SUPPORT
    1) Treatment is SYMPTOMATIC and SUPPORTIVE.
    B) ANAPHYLAXIS
    1) SUMMARY
    a) Mild to moderate allergic reactions may be treated with antihistamines with or without inhaled beta adrenergic agonists, corticosteroids or epinephrine. Treatment of severe anaphylaxis also includes oxygen supplementation, aggressive airway management, epinephrine, ECG monitoring, and IV fluids.
    2) BRONCHOSPASM
    a) ALBUTEROL
    1) ADULT: 2.5 to 5 milligrams in 2 to 4.5 milliliters of normal saline delivered per nebulizer every 20 minutes up to 3 doses. If incomplete response administer 2.5 to 10 mg every 1 to 4 hours as needed, or 10 to 15 mg/hr by continuous nebulization as needed (National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute, 2007). CHILD: 0.15 milligram/kilogram (minimum 2.5 milligrams) per nebulizer every 20 minutes up to 3 doses. If incomplete response administer 0.15 to 0.3 mg/kg (up to 10 mg) every 1 to 4 hours as needed, or 0.5 mg/kg/hr by continuous nebulization (National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute, 2007).
    3) CORTICOSTEROIDS
    a) Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
    b) PREDNISONE: ADULT: 40 to 80 milligrams/day. CHILD: 1 to 2 milligrams/kilogram/day (maximum 60 mg) in 1 to 2 divided doses divided twice daily (National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute, 2007).
    4) MILD CASES
    a) DIPHENHYDRAMINE
    1) SUMMARY: Oral diphenhydramine, as well as other H1 antihistamines can be used as indicated (Lieberman et al, 2010).
    2) ADULT: 50 milligrams orally, or 10 to 50 mg intravenously at a rate not to exceed 25 mg/min or may be given by deep intramuscular injection. A total of 100 mg may be administered if needed. Maximum daily dosage is 400 mg (Prod Info diphenhydramine HCl intravenous injection solution, intramuscular injection solution, 2013).
    3) CHILD: 5 mg/kg/24 hours or 150 mg/m(2)/24 hours. Divided into 4 doses, administered intravenously at a rate not exceeding 25 mg/min or by deep intramuscular injection. Maximum daily dosage is 300 mg (Prod Info diphenhydramine HCl intravenous injection solution, intramuscular injection solution, 2013).
    5) MODERATE CASES
    a) EPINEPHRINE: INJECTABLE SOLUTION: It should be administered early in patients by IM injection. Using a 1:1000 (1 mg/mL) solution of epinephrine. Initial Dose: 0.01 mg/kg intramuscularly with a maximum dose of 0.5 mg in adults and 0.3 mg in children. The dose may be repeated every 5 to 15 minutes, if no clinical improvement. Most patients respond to 1 or 2 doses (Nowak & Macias, 2014).
    6) SEVERE CASES
    a) EPINEPHRINE
    1) INTRAVENOUS BOLUS: ADULT: 1 mg intravenously as a 1:10,000 (0.1 mg/mL) solution; CHILD: 0.01 mL/kg intravenously to a maximum single dose of 1 mg given as a 1:10,000 (0.1 mg/mL) solution. It can be repeated every 3 to 5 minutes as needed. The dose can also be given by the intraosseous route if IV access cannot be established (Lieberman et al, 2015). ALTERNATIVE ROUTE: ENDOTRACHEAL ADMINISTRATION: If IV/IO access is unavailable. DOSE: ADULT: Administer 2 to 2.5 mg of 1:1000 (1 mg/mL) solution diluted in 5 to 10 mL of sterile water via endotracheal tube. CHILD: DOSE: 0.1 mg/kg to a maximum of 2.5 mg administered as a 1:1000 (1 mg/mL) solution diluted in 5 to 10 mL of sterile water via endotracheal tube (Lieberman et al, 2015).
    2) INTRAVENOUS INFUSION: Intravenous administration may be considered in patients poorly responsive to IM or SubQ epinephrine. An epinephrine infusion may be prepared by adding 1 mg (1 mL of 1:1000 (1 mg/mL) solution) to 250 mL D5W, yielding a concentration of 4 mcg/mL, and infuse this solution IV at a rate of 1 mcg/min to 10 mcg/min (maximum rate). CHILD: A dosage of 0.01 mg/kg (0.1 mL/kg of a 1:10,000 (0.1 mg/mL) solution up to 10 mcg/min (maximum dose 0.3 mg) is recommended for children (Lieberman et al, 2010). Careful titration of a continuous infusion of IV epinephrine, based on the severity of the reaction, along with a crystalloid infusion can be considered in the treatment of anaphylactic shock. It appears to be a reasonable alternative to IV boluses, if the patient is not in cardiac arrest (Vanden Hoek,TLet al,null).
    7) AIRWAY MANAGEMENT
    a) OXYGEN: 5 to 10 liters/minute via high flow mask.
    b) INTUBATION: Perform early if any stridor or signs of airway obstruction.
    c) CRICOTHYROTOMY: Use if unable to intubate with complete airway obstruction (Vanden Hoek,TLet al,null).
    d) BRONCHODILATORS are recommended for mild to severe bronchospasm.
    e) ALBUTEROL: ADULT: 2.5 to 5 milligrams in 2 to 4.5 milliliters of normal saline delivered per nebulizer every 20 minutes up to 3 doses. If incomplete response administer 2.5 to 10 mg every 1 to 4 hours as needed, or 10 to 15 mg/hr by continuous nebulization as needed (National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute, 2007).
    f) ALBUTEROL: CHILD: 0.15 milligram/kilogram (minimum 2.5 milligrams) per nebulizer every 20 minutes up to 3 doses. If incomplete response administer 0.15 to 0.3 milligram/kilogram (maximum 10 milligrams) every 1 to 4 hours as needed OR administer 0.5 mg/kg/hr by continuous nebulization (National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute, 2007).
    8) MONITORING
    a) CARDIAC MONITOR: All complicated cases.
    b) IV ACCESS: Routine in all complicated cases.
    9) HYPOTENSION
    a) If hypotensive give 500 to 2000 milliliters crystalloid initially (20 milliliters/kilogram in children) and titrate to desired effect (stabilization of vital signs, mentation, urine output); adults may require up to 6 to 10 L/24 hours. Central venous or pulmonary artery pressure monitoring is recommended in patients with persistent hypotension.
    1) VASOPRESSORS: Should be used in refractory cases unresponsive to repeated doses of epinephrine and after vigorous intravenous crystalloid rehydration (Lieberman et al, 2010).
    2) DOPAMINE: Initial Dose: 2 to 20 micrograms/kilogram/minute intravenously; titrate to maintain systolic blood pressure greater than 90 mm Hg (Lieberman et al, 2010).
    10) H1 and H2 ANTIHISTAMINES
    a) SUMMARY: Antihistamines are second-line therapy and are used as supportive therapy and should not be used in place of epinephrine (Lieberman et al, 2010).
    1) DIPHENHYDRAMINE: ADULT: 25 to 50 milligrams via a slow intravenous infusion or IM. PEDIATRIC: 1 milligram/kilogram via slow intravenous infusion or IM up to 50 mg in children (Lieberman et al, 2010).
    b) RANITIDINE: ADULT: 1 mg/kg parenterally; CHILD: 12.5 to 50 mg parenterally. If the intravenous route is used, ranitidine should be infused over 10 to 15 minutes or diluted in 5% dextrose to a volume of 20 mL and injected over 5 minutes (Lieberman et al, 2010).
    c) Oral diphenhydramine, as well as other H1 antihistamines, can also be used as indicated (Lieberman et al, 2010).
    11) DYSRHYTHMIAS
    a) Dysrhythmias and cardiac dysfunction may occur primarily or iatrogenically as a result of pharmacologic treatment (epinephrine) (Vanden Hoek,TLet al,null). Monitor and correct serum electrolytes, oxygenation and tissue perfusion. Treat with antiarrhythmic agents as indicated.
    12) OTHER THERAPIES
    a) There have been a few reports of patients with anaphylaxis, with or without cardiac arrest, that have responded to vasopressin therapy that did not respond to standard therapy. Although there are no randomized controlled trials, other alternative vasoactive therapies (ie, vasopressin, norepinephrine, methoxamine, and metaraminol) may be considered in patients in cardiac arrest secondary to anaphylaxis that do not respond to epinephrine (Vanden Hoek,TLet al,null).

Range Of Toxicity

Summary

    A) At the time of this review, no reports of toxic overdoses were found in the literature.

Therapeutic Dose

    7.2.1) ADULT
    A) DISEASE STATE
    1) In the United States spirulina is sold as a health food supplement and has been promoted for enhancing antibody production, improving dietary hyperlipidemia, reducing gastric secretory activity and preventative effects on liver triglycerides.
    2) ORAL CANCER: Oral doses of 1 gram/day were administered for 12 months to adults for reversal of oral leukoplakia in a clinical study (Mathew et al, 1995).
    7.2.2) PEDIATRIC
    A) DISEASE STATE
    1) OBESITY: Doses of 2.8 grams 3 times daily for 4 weeks were given to youths for treatment of obesity. No adverse effects were reported (Chamorro et al, 1996a).

Maximum Tolerated Exposure

    A) ADULT
    1) Doses of 1 gram/day for 12 months in adults with oral leukoplakia resulted in no signs/symptoms of toxicity (Mathew et al, 1995).
    B) PEDIATRIC
    1) No changes were reported in blood pressure, serum chemistry, or hematological parameters in youths given 2.8 grams spirulina 3 times daily for treatment of obesity (Chamorro et al, 1996).

Pharmacology Toxicology

Pharmacologic Mechanism

    A) ANORECTIC: Theoretically, spirulina has been promoted for use as a weight loss product, based on the assumption that high levels of phenylalanine will inhibit the appetite. No evidence to support this claim has been found.
    B) PROTEIN - Spirulina has been documented to be a good protein source. The method of processing the cyanophyta dictates the nutritional value of spirulina. Greater bioavailability of protein comes from concentrates prepared from disintegrated cellular material as opposed to concentrates from preparations of whole cells.
    C) IRON - Studies have shown availability of iron in preparations fed to rats to be similar to that of rats fed standard ferrous sulfate. Levels of 300 to 400 ppm dry weight of iron are found in spirulina preparations.
    D) TUMOR REGRESSION - Animal and human studies of the effect of spirulina on oral cancers have shown chemopreventative effects as well as tumor regression accompanied by significant induction of tumor necrosis factor, suggesting a mechanism of tumor destruction (Mathew et al, 1995) .
    E) IMMUNE SYSTEM POTENTIATION - In human volunteers (n=12), administration of spirulina was shown to enhance natural killer (NK) cells (represented by IFN gamma production and cytolysis) in over half the volunteers. It was suggested that spirulina may act directly on myeloid lineages and either directly or indirectly on NK cells (Hirahashi et al, 2002).
    F) ANTIVIRAL - Studies have indicated that spirulina inhibits virus entry into host cells. Enveloped virus replication was inhibited. Some of the viruses included herpes simplex I, cytomegalovirus, mumps and measles viruses, influenza A virus and HIV-1 (Ayehunie et al, 1998).
    G) INHIBITION OF ANAPHYLAXIS - Yang et al (1997) speculated in rat studies that spirulina platensis inhibits anaphylaxis by inhibiting mast cell degranulation when given in doses of 0.5 and 1.0 mg/g body weight.
    H) MODULATION OF LEAD TOXICITY - Shastri et al (1999) report the modulatory effect of Spirulina fusiformis on lead toxicity of the testes of mice at doses of 800 mg/kg body weight. The presence of antioxidants (beta carotene and SOD enzyme) in the spirulina may have contributed to the reduction in the lead toxicity.
    I) CYTOKINES - In rat feeding studies, it was shown that spirulina was able to reverse age-induced decreases in cerebellar beta-adrenergic function. Spirulina also reduced proinflammatory cytokine levels (Gemma et al, 2002).

Toxicologic Mechanism

    A) HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION - Mercury, in concentrations as high as 10 ppm, has been found in some spirulina preparations. Clinical mercury toxicity could occur when 20 grams/day of spirulina with this level of contamination are ingested. Other reported mean heavy metal levels include: arsenic 0.42 ppm, cadmium 0.1 ppm, lead 0.4 ppm, and mercury 0.24 ppm.
    B) MICROBIAL CONTAMINATION - If spirulina is grown on effluent of fermented animal wastes, it is possible that microbial contamination may occur.
    C) HYPERLOCOMOTOR ACTIVITY - Spirulina has been shown in mice studies to induce a locomotor accelerating effect. The study suggested that spirulina caused a release of dopamine as opposed to acting on dopamine receptors (Kulkarni & Ninan, 1996).

Physicochemical

Physical Characteristics

    A) Spirulina is from the species, cyanophyta (blue-green algae), which is blue-green in color due to the presence of both chlorophyll (green) and phycocyanin (blue) pigments in the cells. Spirulina has a characteristic mild marine odor, which is stronger than the taste (Dillon et al, 1995).

Molecular Weight

    A) Not applicable

References

General Bibliography

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    3) Ayehunie S, Belay A, & Baba TW: Inhibition of HIV-1 replication by an aqueous extract of Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis). J Acquired Immune Def Synd Human Retrovirol 1998; 18:7-12.
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