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PHTHALIC ACID ANHYDRIDE

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Classification   |    Detailed evidence-based information

Substances Included Synonyms

Therapeutic Toxic Class

    A) Used in the production of phthaleins, alkyl and polyester resins, benzoic acid, phthalic acid (used as a plasticizer for vinyl resins), and synthetic indigo (ACGIH, 1986) Sittig, 1985; (Lewis, 1996).
    B) Used in the synthesis of alizarin dye, anthranilic acid, anthraquinone, diethyl phthalate, dimethyl phthalate, erythrosin, isophthalic acid, methylaniline, phenolphthalein, phthalamide, sulfathalidine, and terephthalic acid (Sittig, 1985).
    C) Also used as analytic reagent and pesticide intermediate (Sax & Lewis, 1989) Sittig, 1985).

Specific Substances

    1) Phthalandione
    2) Phthalic anhydride
    3) 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid anhydride
    4) 1,3-Dioxophthalan
    5) 1,3-Isobenzofurandione
    6) NCI-c 03601
    7) CAS 85-44-9
    1.2.1) MOLECULAR FORMULA
    1) C8-H4-O3

Available Forms Sources

    A) FORMS
    1) At ambient temperatures, this compound is a colorless to lustrous white solid in the form of crystalline needles or flakes. Its odor has been described as mild but distinctive or choking (Verschueren, 1983; Ashford, 1994; Budavari, 1996) Hathaway, 1996; (Lewis, 1996; AAR, 1998; ACGIH, 1991).
    B) SOURCES
    1) Phthalic anhydride is produced by the gas-phase oxidation of o-xylene, naphthalene fraction, and naphthalene. It is not known to occur naturally (Howard, 1989; Ashford, 1994).
    C) USES
    1) Phthalic anhydride is utilized in the manufacturing process of many resins, dyes, polyesters, plasticizers, pharmaceuticals, and fungicides, and as a vulcanizing retarder (Ashford, 1994; Budavari, 1996; Hathaway et al, 1996; Lewis, 1996; AAR, 1998; ACGIH, 1991).

Overview

Life Support

    A) This overview assumes that basic life support measures have been instituted.

Clinical Effects

    0.2.1) SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
    A) Phthalic acid anhydride may be irritating to the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes. Signs and symptoms of exposure may include: lacrimation, conjunctivitis, bloody nasal discharge, atrophy of the nasal mucosa, occasionally bloody sputum, cough, hoarseness, bronchitis, and emphysema. Skin sensitization and an eczematous response may occur.
    B) On moist surfaces, the irritant effects are greater due to hydrolysis to phthalic acid. If solid material is permitted to remain in contact with moist tissues, superficial burns may result. Molten material will cause a severe thermal burn.
    0.2.4) HEENT
    A) Conjunctivitis and lacrimation have been noted.
    B) Rhinorrhea, anosmia, and bloody nasal discharge may occur.
    C) Hoarseness has been reported.
    0.2.6) RESPIRATORY
    A) Bronchial asthma and upper respiratory irritation may occur and recur for as long as 4 years after avoidance of exposure.
    0.2.14) DERMATOLOGIC
    A) Phthalic acid anhydride is a delayed, direct skin irritant.
    B) Skin sensitization with dermatitis, urticaria and eczematous lesions, brown skin pigmentation, and severe burns may occur.
    0.2.20) REPRODUCTIVE
    A) Effects on spermatogenesis and on the testes, epididymis, and sperm have been observed in experimental animals.

Laboratory Monitoring

    A) Annual chest x-ray and FEV examinations and periodic renal and liver function tests are recommended in chronic exposure.
    B) Urine phthalate levels and histamine assays may be done but these need further validation as diagnostic tools.

Treatment Overview

    0.4.2) ORAL/PARENTERAL EXPOSURE
    A) Oral effects are unknown. Emesis is not recommended based on its irritant properties.
    0.4.3) INHALATION EXPOSURE
    A) INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
    0.4.4) EYE EXPOSURE
    A) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.
    0.4.5) DERMAL EXPOSURE
    A) OVERVIEW
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).

Range Of Toxicity

    A) The minimum lethal concentration in human exposure is not known.
    B) Air concentrations of 25 mg/m(3) have caused mucous membrane irritation and conjunctivitis.

Clinical Effects

Summary Of Exposure

    A) Phthalic acid anhydride may be irritating to the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes. Signs and symptoms of exposure may include: lacrimation, conjunctivitis, bloody nasal discharge, atrophy of the nasal mucosa, occasionally bloody sputum, cough, hoarseness, bronchitis, and emphysema. Skin sensitization and an eczematous response may occur.
    B) On moist surfaces, the irritant effects are greater due to hydrolysis to phthalic acid. If solid material is permitted to remain in contact with moist tissues, superficial burns may result. Molten material will cause a severe thermal burn.

Heent

    3.4.1) SUMMARY
    A) Conjunctivitis and lacrimation have been noted.
    B) Rhinorrhea, anosmia, and bloody nasal discharge may occur.
    C) Hoarseness has been reported.
    3.4.3) EYES
    A) CONJUNCTIVITIS has been noted in workers exposed to mixed vapors with phthalic anhydride levels of 30 mg/m(3) (5 ppm) (ACGIH, 1986; Nielsen et al, 1988; Proctor et al, 1988).
    B) May cause persistent conjunctivitis, but no permanent injury has been reported (Grant & Schuman, 1993).
    C) LACRIMATION may be noted (ACGIH, 1986; HSDB , 2000).
    3.4.5) NOSE
    A) RHINORRHEA may occur (ACGIH, 1986; Nielsen et al, 1988; Proctor et al, 1988).
    B) BLOODY NASAL DISCHARGE and nasal mucosal atrophy have been reported in workers exposed to mixed vapors (ACGIH, 1986; Proctor et al, 1988; HSDB , 2000).
    C) ANOSMIA may occur with exposure (ITI, 1988).
    3.4.6) THROAT
    A) HOARSENESS and cough have been noted in workers exposed to mixed vapors of phthalic acid and phthalic acid anhydride (ACGIH, 1986; Proctor et al, 1988).

Respiratory

    3.6.1) SUMMARY
    A) Bronchial asthma and upper respiratory irritation may occur and recur for as long as 4 years after avoidance of exposure.
    3.6.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) BRONCHOSPASM
    1) Upper respiratory irritation and bronchial asthma may occur with each exposure (ACGIH, 1986) Neilsen et al, 1988; (Proctor et al, 1988) Wernfers et al, 1986).
    2) Asthmatic signs and symptoms in patients diagnosed to have occupational asthma caused by tetrachlorophthalic anhydride recurred even 4 years after discontinuation and avoidance of exposure (Venables et al, 1987).
    3) Patients with asthma caused by occupational exposure to tetrachlorophthalic anhydride presented with late or dual asthmatic responses when provoked with TCPA at doses of 1.3 to 961.1 micrograms/m(3) (Venables & Newman-Taylor, 1990).

Neurologic

    3.7.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM FINDING
    1) Minor signs of CNS excitation have been reported following exposure (HSDB , 2000).

Gastrointestinal

    3.8.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) GASTRIC ULCER
    a) Gastric ulceration was observed among surviving rats which were given as much as 890 mg/kg of phthalic anhydride for 9 weeks (National Research Council, 1977).

Genitourinary

    3.10.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) NEPHROSIS
    a) RATS - Nephrosis with severe destruction of tubular epithelium, was noted in rats given as much as 890 mg/kg of phthalic anhydride for 9 weeks (National Research Council, 1977).

Dermatologic

    3.14.1) SUMMARY
    A) Phthalic acid anhydride is a delayed, direct skin irritant.
    B) Skin sensitization with dermatitis, urticaria and eczematous lesions, brown skin pigmentation, and severe burns may occur.
    3.14.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) SKIN FINDING
    1) Skin exposure to phthalic anhydride can result in reversible or irreversible changes and cause considerable discomfort (HSDB , 2000).
    B) SKIN IRRITATION
    1) Phthalic anhydride may be a direct, but delayed skin irritant. Prolonged exposure may result in skin sensitization with dermatitis, urticaria and eczematous lesions (ACGIH, 1986; Proctor et al, 1988).
    2) Indications of mucous membrane irritation were noted at 25 mg/m(3) (HSDB , 2000).
    C) DISCOLORATION OF SKIN
    1) Phthalic anhydride may produce brown skin pigmentation (ITI, 1988).
    D) CHEMICAL BURN
    1) Severe skin burn can be caused by exposure of moist skin to molten phthalic anhydride (HSDB , 2000).

Immunologic

    3.19.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) INCREASED IMMUNOGLOBULIN
    1) ELEVATED SPECIFIC IgE AND IgG TITERS and positive patch tests were reported in workers who developed rhinorrhea, lacrimation, and wheezing from exposure to phthalic anhydride over a year (Maccia et al, 1976; Nielsen et al, 1988). Specific IgE antibody to tetrachlorophthalic anhydride was detectable and levels were increased beyond 5 years after discontinuation of exposure (Venables et al, 1987).

Reproductive

    3.20.1) SUMMARY
    A) Effects on spermatogenesis and on the testes, epididymis, and sperm have been observed in experimental animals.

Carcinogenicity

    3.21.1) IARC CATEGORY
    A) IARC Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS85-44-9 (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004):
    1) Not Listed
    3.21.3) HUMAN STUDIES
    A) LACK OF EFFECT
    1) NON-CARCINOGENICITY - Increased occurrence of tumors was not observed for either sex of rats and mice which were exposed to 1,600 to 25,000 ppm pf phthalic anhydride for 13 weeks (Kluwe et al, 1982; Kluwe, 1986).

Genotoxicity

    A) NON-MUTAGENICITY - A study with insufficient details allegedly showed phthalic anhydrides to be incapable of inducing chromosome aberrations in culture lines derived from Chinese hamster ovary cells.

Laboratory Monitoring

Monitoring Parameters Levels

    4.1.1) SUMMARY
    A) Annual chest x-ray and FEV examinations and periodic renal and liver function tests are recommended in chronic exposure.
    B) Urine phthalate levels and histamine assays may be done but these need further validation as diagnostic tools.
    4.1.2) SERUM/BLOOD
    A) BLOOD/SERUM CHEMISTRY
    1) Periodic examinations among those chronically exposed should include liver and renal function tests (Sittig, 1985).
    4.1.3) URINE
    A) URINARY LEVELS
    1) Urine phthalate levels may be used for monitoring the exposure of workers to phthalic anhydride. The highest mean postshift urine phthalate levels (geometric mean of 7.6 nmol/mL) were noted among those heavily exposed to airborne concentrations of 4 to 203 nanograms/m(3) (Liss et al, 1985).
    B) In another study, significant correlations were found between phthalic acid concentrations in urine and time-weighted concentrations of phthalic anhydride in workplace air (Pfaffli, 1986).
    4.1.4) OTHER
    A) OTHER
    1) MONITORING
    a) Annual chest x-ray and FEV examinations are recommended in chronic exposure (Sittig, 1985)
    2) OTHER
    a) In vitro histamine assays can be used in the identification of subjects with allergic response to phthalic anhydrides (Flaherty et al, 1988).

Treatment

Life Support

    A) Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

Monitoring

    A) Annual chest x-ray and FEV examinations and periodic renal and liver function tests are recommended in chronic exposure.
    B) Urine phthalate levels and histamine assays may be done but these need further validation as diagnostic tools.

Oral Exposure

    6.5.1) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION/PREHOSPITAL
    A) EMESIS/NOT RECOMMENDED -
    1) Oral effects are unknown. Emesis is not recommended based on its irritant properties.
    B) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL/NOT RECOMMENDED -
    1) Activated charcoal may obscure endoscopy findings; it should be avoided.
    C) DILUTION -
    1) DILUTION: If no respiratory compromise is present, administer milk or water as soon as possible after ingestion. Dilution may only be helpful if performed in the first seconds to minutes after ingestion. The ideal amount is unknown; no more than 8 ounces (240 mL) in adults and 4 ounces (120 mL) in children is recommended to minimize the risk of vomiting (Caravati, 2004).
    6.5.2) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION
    A) EMESIS/NOT RECOMMENDED
    1) Oral effects are unknown. Emesis is not recommended based on its irritant properties.
    6.5.3) TREATMENT
    A) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Observe carefully for signs of esophageal or gastrointestinal irritation, bleeding, or perforation.
    2) There is little information regarding the use of endoscopy, corticosteroids or surgery in the setting of concentrated phthalic acid anhydride ingestion. The following information is derived from experience with other corrosives.
    B) ENDOSCOPIC PROCEDURE
    1) SUMMARY: Obtain consultation concerning endoscopy as soon as possible and perform endoscopy within the first 24 hours when indicated.
    2) INDICATIONS: Most studies associating the presence or absence of gastrointestinal burns with signs and symptoms after caustic ingestion have involved primarily alkaline ingestions. Because acid ingestion may cause severe gastric injury with fewer associated initial signs and symptoms, endoscopic evaluation is recommended in any patient with a definite history of ingestion of a strong acid, even if asymptomatic.
    3) RISKS: Numerous large case series attest to the relative safety and utility of early endoscopy in the management of caustic ingestion.
    a) REFERENCES: Gaudreault et al, 1983; Symbas et al, 1983; Crain et al, 1984; (Schild, 1985; Moazam et al, 1987; Sugawa & Lucas, 1989; Previtera et al, 1990; Zargar et al, 1991; Vergauwen et al, 1991; Gorman et al, 1992; Nuutinen et al, 1994)
    4) The risk of perforation during endoscopy is minimized by (Zargar et al, 1991):
    a) Advancing across the cricopharynx under direct vision
    b) Gently advancing with minimal air insufflation
    c) Never retroverting or retroflexing the endoscope
    d) Using a pediatric flexible endoscope
    e) Using extreme caution in advancing beyond burn lesion areas
    f) Most authors recommend endoscopy within the first 24 hours of injury, not advancing the endoscope beyond areas of severe esophageal burns, and avoiding endoscopy during the subacute phase of healing when tissue slough increases the risk of perforation (5 to 15 days after ingestion) (Zargar et al, 1991).
    5) GRADING
    a) Several scales for grading caustic injury exist. The likelihood of complications such as strictures, obstruction, bleeding and perforation is related to the severity of the initial burn (Zargar et al, 1991):
    b) Grade 0 - Normal examination
    c) Grade 1 - Edema and hyperemia of the mucosa; strictures unlikely.
    d) Grade 2A - Friability, hemorrhages, erosions, blisters, whitish membranes, exudates and superficial ulcerations; strictures unlikely.
    e) Grade 2B - Grade 2A plus deep discreet or circumferential ulceration; strictures may develop.
    f) Grade 3A - Multiple ulcerations and small scattered areas of necrosis; strictures are common, complications such as perforation, fistula formation, or gastrointestinal bleeding may occur.
    g) Grade 3B - Extensive necrosis through visceral wall; strictures are common, complications such as perforation, fistula formation, or gastrointestinal bleeding are more likely than with 3A.
    6) FOLLOW UP - If burns are found, follow 10 to 20 days later with barium swallow or esophagram.
    C) CORTICOSTEROID
    1) CORROSIVE INGESTION/SUMMARY: The use of corticosteroids for the treatment of caustic ingestion is controversial. Most animal studies have involved alkali-induced injury (Haller & Bachman, 1964; Saedi et al, 1973). Most human studies have been retrospective and generally involve more alkali than acid-induced injury and small numbers of patients with documented second or third degree mucosal injury.
    2) FIRST DEGREE BURNS: These burns generally heal well and rarely result in stricture formation (Zargar et al, 1989; Howell et al, 1992). Corticosteroids are generally not beneficial in these patients (Howell et al, 1992).
    3) SECOND DEGREE BURNS: Some authors recommend corticosteroid treatment to prevent stricture formation in patients with a second degree, deep-partial thickness burn (Howell et al, 1992). However, no well controlled human study has documented efficacy. Corticosteroids are generally not beneficial in patients with a second degree, superficial-partial thickness burn (Caravati, 2004; Howell et al, 1992).
    4) THIRD DEGREE BURNS: Some authors have recommended steroids in this group as well (Howell et al, 1992). A high percentage of patients with third degree burns go on to develop strictures with or without corticosteroid therapy and the risk of infection and perforation may be increased by corticosteroid use. Most authors feel that the risk outweighs any potential benefit and routine use is not recommended (Boukthir et al, 2004; Oakes et al, 1982; Pelclova & Navratil, 2005).
    5) CONTRAINDICATIONS: Include active gastrointestinal bleeding and evidence of gastric or esophageal perforation. Corticosteroids are thought to be ineffective if initiated more than 48 hours after a burn (Howell, 1987).
    6) DOSE: Administer daily oral doses of 0.1 milligram/kilogram of dexamethasone or 1 to 2 milligrams/kilogram of prednisone. Continue therapy for a total of 3 weeks and then taper (Haller et al, 1971; Marshall, 1979). An alternative regimen in children is intravenous prednisolone 2 milligrams/kilogram/day followed by 2.5 milligrams/kilogram/day of oral prednisone for a total of 3 weeks then tapered (Anderson et al, 1990).
    7) ANTIBIOTICS: Animal studies suggest that the addition of antibiotics can prevent the infectious complications associated with corticosteroid use in the setting of caustic burns. Antibiotics are recommended if corticosteroids are used or if perforation or infection is suspected. Agents that cover anaerobes and oral flora such as penicillin, ampicillin, or clindamycin are appropriate (Rosenberg et al, 1953).
    8) STUDIES
    a) ANIMAL
    1) Some animal studies have suggested that corticosteroid therapy may reduce the incidence of stricture formation after severe alkaline corrosive injury (Haller & Bachman, 1964; Saedi et al, 1973a).
    2) Animals treated with steroids and antibiotics appear to do better than animals treated with steroids alone (Haller & Bachman, 1964).
    3) Other studies have shown no evidence of reduced stricture formation in steroid treated animals (Reyes et al, 1974). An increased rate of esophageal perforation related to steroid treatment has been found in animal studies (Knox et al, 1967).
    b) HUMAN
    1) Most human studies have been retrospective and/or uncontrolled and generally involve small numbers of patients with documented second or third degree mucosal injury. No study has proven a reduced incidence of stricture formation from steroid use in human caustic ingestions (Haller et al, 1971; Hawkins et al, 1980; Yarington & Heatly, 1963; Adam & Brick, 1982).
    2) META ANALYSIS
    a) Howell et al (1992), analyzed reports concerning 361 patients with corrosive esophageal injury published in the English language literature since 1956 (10 retrospective and 3 prospective studies). No patients with first degree burns developed strictures. Of 228 patients with second or third degree burns treated with corticosteroids and antibiotics, 54 (24%) developed strictures. Of 25 patients with similar burn severity treated without steroids or antibiotics, 13 (52%) developed strictures (Howell et al, 1992).
    b) Another meta-analysis of 10 studies found that in patients with second degree esophageal burns from caustics, the overall rate of stricture formation was 14.8% in patients who received corticosteroids compared with 36% in patients who did not receive corticosteroids (LoVecchio et al, 1996).
    c) Another study combined results of 10 papers evaluating therapy for corrosive esophageal injury in humans published between January 1991 and June 2004. There were a total of 572 patients, all patients received corticosteroids in 6 studies, in 2 studies no patients received steroids, and in 2 studies, treatment with and without corticosteroids was compared. Of 109 patients with grade 2 esophageal burns who were treated with corticosteroids, 15 (13.8%) developed strictures, compared with 2 of 32 (6.3%) patients with second degree burns who did not receive steroids (Pelclova & Navratil, 2005).
    3) Smaller studies have questioned the value of steroids (Ferguson et al, 1989; Anderson et al, 1990), thus they should be used with caution.
    4) Ferguson et al (1989) retrospectively compared 10 patients who did not receive antibiotics or steroids with 31 patients who received both antibiotics and steroids in a study of caustic ingestion and found no difference in the incidence of esophageal stricture between the two groups (Ferguson et al, 1989).
    5) A randomized, controlled, prospective clinical trial involving 60 children with lye or acid induced esophageal injury did not find an effect of corticosteroids on the incidence of stricture formation (Anderson et al, 1990).
    a) These 60 children were among 131 patients who were managed and followed-up for ingestion of caustic material from 1971 through 1988; 88% of them were between 1 and 3 years old (Anderson et al, 1990).
    b) All patients underwent rigid esophagoscopy after being randomized to receive either no steroids or a course consisting initially of intravenous prednisolone (2 milligrams/kilogram per day) followed by 2.5 milligrams/kilogram/day of oral prednisone for a total of 3 weeks prior to tapering and discontinuation (Anderson et al, 1990).
    c) Six (19%), 15 (48%), and 10 (32%) of those in the treatment group had first, second and third degree esophageal burns, respectively. In contrast, 13 (45%), 5 (17%), and 11 (38%) of the control group had the same levels of injury (Anderson et al, 1990).
    d) Ten (32%) of those receiving steroids and 11 (38%) of the control group developed strictures. Four (13%) of those receiving steroids and 7 (24%) of the control group required esophageal replacement. All but 1 of the 21 children who developed strictures had severe circumferential burns on initial esophagoscopy (Anderson et al, 1990).
    e) Because of the small numbers of patients in this study, it lacked the power to reliably detect meaningful differences in outcome between the treatment groups (Anderson et al, 1990).
    6) ADVERSE EFFECTS
    a) The use of corticosteroids in the treatment of caustic ingestion in humans has been associated with gastric perforation (Cleveland et al, 1963) and fatal pulmonary embolism (Aceto et al, 1970).
    D) SURGICAL PROCEDURE
    1) In severe cases of gastrointestinal necrosis or perforation, emergent surgical consultation should be obtained. The need for gastric resection or laparotomy in the stable patient is controversial (Chodak & Passaro, 1978; Dilawari et al, 1984).
    2) LAPAROTOMY/LAPAROSCOPY - Early laparotomy or laparoscopy should be considered in patients with endoscopic evidence of severe esophageal or gastric burns after acid ingestion to evaluate for the presence of transmural gastric or esophageal necrosis (Estrera et al, 1986; Meredith et al, 1988; Wu & Lai, 1993). Emergent laparotomy should be strongly considered in any patient with hypotension, altered mental status, or acidemia (Hovarth et al, 1991).
    a) STUDY - In a retrospective study of patients with extensive transmural gastroesophageal necrosis after caustic ingestion, all 4 patients treated in the conventional manner (endoscopy, steroids, antibiotics, and repeated evaluation for the occurrence of esophagogastric necrosis and perforation) died, while all 3 patients treated with early laparotomy and immediate esophagogastric resection survived (Estrera et al, 1986).
    b) Wu & Lai (1993) reported the results of emergency surgical resection of the alimentary tract in 28 patients who had extensive corrosive injuries due to the ingestion of acids or other caustics. Operative mortality was most frequently associated with sepsis. Non-fatal bleeding, infections, biliary or bronchial fistulas were other noted complications. Morbidity and mortality were related to the severity of the damage and the extent of surgery required.
    1) Immediate postoperative management included antibiotics, extensive respiratory care, tracheobronchial toilet, maintenance of fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance, and jejunostomy feeding or total parenteral nutrition.

Inhalation Exposure

    6.7.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) Move patient from the toxic environment to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty in breathing develops, evaluate for hypoxia, respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis.
    B) OBSERVATION: Carefully observe patients with inhalation exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    C) INITIAL TREATMENT: Administer 100% humidified supplemental oxygen, perform endotracheal intubation and provide assisted ventilation as required. Administer inhaled beta-2 adrenergic agonists, if bronchospasm develops. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm (National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute, 2007). Exposed skin and eyes should be flushed with copious amounts of water.

Eye Exposure

    6.8.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) EYE IRRIGATION, ROUTINE: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, an ophthalmologic examination should be performed (Peate, 2007; Naradzay & Barish, 2006).

Dermal Exposure

    6.9.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) DERMAL DECONTAMINATION
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and wash exposed area thoroughly with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).

Range Of Toxicity

Summary

    A) The minimum lethal concentration in human exposure is not known.
    B) Air concentrations of 25 mg/m(3) have caused mucous membrane irritation and conjunctivitis.

Minimum Lethal Exposure

    A) GENERAL/SUMMARY
    1) The minimum lethal human dose to this agent has not been delineated.

Maximum Tolerated Exposure

    A) GENERAL/SUMMARY
    1) Phthalic anhydride is irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract. Workers exposed to concentrations of 4 ppm (25 mg/m(3)) showed signs of mucous membrane irritation and developed conjunctivitis at 5 ppm (30 mg/m(3)). Bloody nasal discharge, atrophy of the nasal mucosa, hoarseness, cough, occasional bloody sputum, bronchitis, emphysema, and bronchial asthma have been reported among workers exposed to unknown levels of mixed vapors of phthalic anhydride and phthalic acid (Grant & Schuman, 1993; Hathaway et al, 1996; Lewis, 1996; NFPA, 1997; ACGIH, 1991).
    2) Phthalic anhydride is also a skin irritant and sensitizer; exposed workers have developed occasional urticaria and eczematous responses. This irritation is more severe if the skin is wet because of the formation of phthalic acid. Prolonged or repeated exposure may also result in an allergic type of skin rash; it is often difficult to distinguish between sensitization and irritation by clinical history (Hathaway et al, 1996; Lewis, 1996; NFPA, 1997; ACGIH, 1991).

Workplace Standards

    A) ACGIH TLV Values for CAS85-44-9 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):
    1) Editor's Note: The listed values are recommendations or guidelines developed by ACGIH(R) to assist in the control of health hazards. They should only be used, interpreted and applied by individuals trained in industrial hygiene. Before applying these values, it is imperative to read the introduction to each section in the current TLVs(R) and BEI(R) Book and become familiar with the constraints and limitations to their use. Always consult the Documentation of the TLVs(R) and BEIs(R) before applying these recommendations and guidelines.
    a) Under Study
    1) Phthalic anhydride
    a) TLV:
    1) TLV-TWA:
    2) TLV-STEL:
    3) TLV-Ceiling:
    b) Notations and Endnotes:
    1) Carcinogenicity Category: Not Listed
    2) Codes: Not Listed
    3) Definitions: Not Listed
    c) TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s):
    d) Molecular Weight:
    1) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3):
    a) [(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45
    2) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm:
    a) [(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance
    e) Additional information:
    b) Adopted Value
    1) Phthalic anhydride
    a) TLV:
    1) TLV-TWA: 1 ppm
    2) TLV-STEL:
    3) TLV-Ceiling:
    b) Notations and Endnotes:
    1) Carcinogenicity Category: A4
    2) Codes: SEN
    3) Definitions:
    a) A4: Not Classifiable as a Human Carcinogen: Agents which cause concern that they could be carcinogenic for humans but which cannot be assessed conclusively because of a lack of data. In vitro or animal studies do not provide indications of carcinogenicity which are sufficient to classify the agent into one of the other categories.
    b) SEN: The designation SEN refers to the potential for an agent to produce sensitization, as confirmed by human or animal data. The notation does not imply that this is the critical effect or that this is the sole basis for the TLV. Although, for those TLVs that are based on sensitization, the TLV is meant to protect workers from induction of this effect, but cannot protect workers who have already become sensitized. The notation should be used to assist in identifying sensitization hazards and reducing respiratory, dermal, and conjunctival exposures to sensitizing agents in the workplace. Please see "Definitions and Notations" (in TLV booklet) for full definition.
    c) TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): URT, eye, and skin irr
    d) Molecular Weight: 148.11
    1) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3):
    a) [(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45
    2) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm:
    a) [(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance
    e) Additional information:

    B) NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS85-44-9 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):
    1) Listed as: Phthalic anhydride
    2) REL:
    a) TWA: 6 mg/m(3) (1 ppm)
    b) STEL:
    c) Ceiling:
    d) Carcinogen Listing: (Not Listed) Not Listed
    e) Skin Designation: Not Listed
    f) Note(s):
    3) IDLH:
    a) IDLH: 60 mg/m3
    b) Note(s): Not Listed

    C) Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS85-44-9 :
    1) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): Not Listed ; Listed as: Phthalic anhydride
    2) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A4 ; Listed as: Phthalic anhydride
    a) A4 :Not Classifiable as a Human Carcinogen: Agents which cause concern that they could be carcinogenic for humans but which cannot be assessed conclusively because of a lack of data. In vitro or animal studies do not provide indications of carcinogenicity which are sufficient to classify the agent into one of the other categories.
    3) EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): Not Assessed under the IRIS program. ; Listed as: Phthalic anhydride
    4) IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): Not Listed
    5) NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Not Listed ; Listed as: Phthalic anhydride
    6) MAK (DFG, 2002): Not Listed
    7) NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): Not Listed

    D) OSHA PEL Values for CAS85-44-9 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):
    1) Listed as: Phthalic anhydride
    2) Table Z-1 for Phthalic anhydride:
    a) 8-hour TWA:
    1) ppm: 2
    a) Parts of vapor or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25 degrees C and 760 torr.
    2) mg/m3: 12
    a) Milligrams of substances per cubic meter of air. When entry is in this column only, the value is exact; when listed with a ppm entry, it is approximate.
    3) Ceiling Value:
    4) Skin Designation: No
    5) Notation(s): Not Listed

Toxicity Information

    7.7.1) TOXICITY VALUES
    A) LD50- (ORAL)MOUSE:
    1) 1500 mg/kg ((RTECS, 2000))
    B) LD50- (ORAL)MOUSE:
    1) 2 g/kg (HSDB, 2000)
    C) LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
    1) 1530 mg/kg - depressed general activity and behavior((RTECS, 2000))
    D) LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
    1) 4020 mg/kg (HSDB, 2000)

Pharmacology Toxicology

Toxicologic Mechanism

    A) Phthalic acid is formed after contact with water and this increases severity of skin irritation (ILO, 1983; Proctor et al, 1988).

Physicochemical

Physical Characteristics

    A) Phthalic anhydride exists at ambient temperatures as a colorless to lustrous white solid in the form of crystalline needles or flakes. Its odor has been described as mild but distinctive or choking (Verschueren, 1983; Ashford, 1994; Budavari, 1996) Hathaway, 1996; (Lewis, 1996; AAR, 1998; ACGIH, 1991).

Ph

    1) No information found at the time of this review.

Molecular Weight

    A) 148.12 (Budavari, 1996)

Other

    A) ODOR THRESHOLD
    1) 0.053 ppm (ACGIH, 1991)

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