NICKEL

Editor's Note: This material is not listed in the Emergency Response Guidebook. Based on the material's physical and chemical properties, toxicity, or chemical group, a guide has been assigned. For additional technical information, contact one of the emergency response telephone numbers listed under Public Safety Measures.

STCC NUMBER

4916226 - Nickel catalyst, spent
4916225 - Nickel catalyst, not spent

MOLECULAR FORMULA

ERG GUIDE NUMBER

135-SUBSTANCES - SPONTANEOUSLY COMBUSTIBLE

SYNONYM REFERENCE

(Bingham et al, 2001; HSDB , 2002; IARC & 2001, 2001; Lewis, 2000; RTECS , 2002; Sittig, 1991)

USES/FORMS/SOURCES

USES

It is used as a catalyst in the petroleum, plastic, and rubber industries. Nickel is also combined with other metals to form products that may be commonly worn or found in the home. Other products have included jewelry, surgical and dental appliances, eye wear, cellular phones, and musical instruments (Danese & Bertazzoni, 1995; Ross et al, 1998; Fernandez-Redondo et al, 1998; Ashford, 1951) (Corrazza & Virgili, 1998) (Barrazza & Ollivaud, 1999) (Kanerva et al, 1999; Pazzaglia et al, 2000; De Silva & Doherty, 2000; Schubert, 2000).
Nickel is used in various corrosion-resistant alloys; alloys (most commonly with iron, copper, zinc, or chromium); electroplated and electroformed coatings; alkaline storage batteries; nickel-cadium batteries; fuel cell electrodes; as a catalyst for some methanation and hydrogenation reactions; coins, machinery parts; magnets; surgical and dental prostheses; in cooling towers as anodic inhibitors (Ashford, 1951; ACGIH, 1991; Hathaway et al, 1996; HSDB , 2002; Lewis, 1997).

FORMS

Nickel is available as pellets, squares, rondelles, powder, electrolytic, ingot, shot, sponge, high-purity strip, and single crystals (Ashford, 1994; (HSDB , 2002; Lewis, 1997).

SOURCES

Occurring naturally as the sulfide and silicate, nickel is typically present in soil at concentrations of 5.0-1000 ppm and, occasionally, at extremes of 0.8-6200 ppm; it occurs naturally in groundwater at less than 10 to 50 ppm (Dragun, 1988; Lewis, 1998).
A metallic element, nickel has the atomic number 28 and is a member of group VIII of the periodic table. The element has five stable isotopes and oxidation states of 0, +1, +2, +3, and +4 (ACGIH, 1991) (Harbison, 1998) (Lewis, 1997).
Nickel carbonyl is formed by a reaction with carbon monoxide (See NICKEL CARBONYL).
Nickel can be prepared by the following processes: the pyrometallurgical reduction of nickel oxide with metallurgical coke; the electric furnace reduction/electrolysis of nickel oxide, green with metallurgical coke; the reduction/carbonyl gas refining process of nickel oxide, green with hydrogen; the pressure leaching/solvent extraction/electrolysis or lateritic ore (coproduced with cobalt); the pressure leaching/reduction of nickel-copper matte/nickel matte with hydrogen (coproduced with cobalt) (Ashford, 1994).
SOURCES OF EXPOSURE

Occupations that frequently involve exposure to nickel include: ink production, spark plug manufacturing, ceramics, jewelers, rubber formation, electroplating, storage batteries, coin manufacture, auto or airplane parts, manufacture of stainless steel cooking utensils, and electrical parts manufacturers.
There are multiple uses for nickel that may increase the risk of exposure to the general population:

AIRBORNE NICKEL: Nickel containing dust was reported to cause dermatitis in an individual in a textile industry and a metal research laboratory (Kanerva et al, 1999; Schubert, 2000).
CELLULAR PHONES: Contact dermatitis has been reported following exposure to cellular phones that contain nickel sulfate 5% (Pazzaglia et al, 2000).
ELECTRONIC CIGARETTES: Nickel contact allergy was reported with the use of an electronic cigarette in an adult with a history of contact allergy; a dimethylglyoxime spot test was positive. Of 11 electronic cigarette models, three were positive for lead (Maridet et al, 2015).
MUSICAL INSTRUMENT(S): A positive nickel allergy occurred in an adult who played the trumpet (2.5% nickel) (Nakamura et al, 1999).
EYE WEAR: Contact dermatitis has been reported following exposure to metal-framed eye glasses (Danese & Bertazzoni, 1995).
GARMENT: An adult developed contact dermatitis following exposure to a neoprene wet suit that contained nickel (probably used in the dyeing process) (Corazza & Virgili, 1998).
ORTHODONTIC/DENTAL APPLIANCES: Nickel-titanium wires have produced atopic dermatitis in a child wearing braces (De Silva & Doherty, 2000), and in adult following titanium dental implants (Fernandez-Redondo et al, 1998).
SURGICAL APPLIANCES/SKIN CLIPS: Cell-mediated hypersensitivity has been reported following the use of titanium clips (internal and external) containing nickel; titanium and titanium alloy may be used in many restorative surgeries, in various dental implants and in heart valves (Ross et al, 1998; Ashford, 1951).

SYNONYM EXPLANATION

The activated catalyst, Raney nickel, is prepared by fusing 50 parts aluminum with 50 parts nickel followed by pulverizing the resulting alloy and dissolving out the majority of the aluminum with a sodium hydroxide solution. Because it must contain hydrogen to be active, it has been attributed the formula Ni2-H (Budavari, 2000)

-CLINICAL EFFECTS

GENERAL CLINICAL EFFECTS

USES: Nickel is used as a catalyst in the petroleum, plastic and rubber industries. Nickel is also combined with other metals to form products that may be commonly worn or found in the home. Nickel is used in various corrosion-resistant alloys; alloys (most commonly with iron, copper, zinc, or chromium). It occurs naturally in soil and fresh and saltwater. Nickel carbonyl is a highly toxic nickel compound commonly used as a chemical reagent and is covered in another management (See NICKEL CARBONYL).

TOXICOLOGY: Water-soluble nickel compounds do not readily enter cells; whereas, water-insoluble nickel compounds enter cells through phagocytosis and are carcinogenic. Carcinogenicity may be related to DNA protein binding, oxidation, and DNA-protein cross-linking by nickel.

EPIDEMIOLOGY: Exposure to nickel is common. Severe toxicity to forms other than nickel carbonyl is uncommon. Contact dermatitis or hypersensitivity, possibly severe, occurs in sensitized individuals (2% to 5% of the general population). Nickel is the most common cause of allergic contact sensitization.

WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE

TOXIC EXPOSURE: Adverse effects can result from ingestion, skin contact, inhalation or parenteral routes of exposure; nickel may be absorbed from the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts as well as percutaneously.
INHALATION: Inhalation of nickel alloys or dust has been linked to pulmonary irritation, asthma, pneumoconiosis, pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary edema. Early symptoms after inhalation are dizziness, sore throat, hoarseness, and weakness. Gingivitis, stomatitis, metallic taste, nasal irritation, nasal mucosal damage, nasal septum perforation, hyposmia/anosmia, cough and shortness of breath are sometimes reported. Exposure to nickel fumes may result in "metal fume fever."
INGESTION: Oral toxicity of elemental nickel is low. Large doses taken orally may cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Elemental nickel is present in some foods and water, but dietary exposures are generally not significant.
DERMAL: "Nickel itch" may begin with a burning and itching sensation, followed by erythema and nodular eruptions. Once acquired, nickel sensitivity usually persists. Nickel and its inorganic compounds can be absorbed through the skin but not in amounts sufficient to cause intoxication.
PARENTERAL: Parenteral exposures may occur from implanted metal prostheses, stainless steel needles or contaminated dialysate solutions. Inflammatory reactions have occurred around nickel-containing prostheses and medical implants. Nickel intoxication from dialysis exposure includes nausea, vomiting, headache, weakness and palpitations.
CARCINOGENICITY: Some work environments (ie, nickel refinery work) and forms of nickel are associated with human malignancies, mainly nasal and respiratory cancers.

POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)

Fire will produce irritating, corrosive and/or toxic gases.
Inhalation of decomposition products may cause severe injury or death.
Contact with substance may cause severe burns to skin and eyes.
Runoff from fire control may cause pollution.

ACUTE CLINICAL EFFECTS

SUMMARY

USES: Nickel is used as a catalyst in the petroleum, plastic and rubber industries. Nickel is also combined with other metals to form products that may be commonly worn or found in the home. Nickel is used in various corrosion-resistant alloys; alloys (most commonly with iron, copper, zinc, or chromium). It occurs naturally in soil and fresh and saltwater. Nickel carbonyl is a highly toxic nickel compound commonly used as a chemical reagent and is covered in another management (See NICKEL CARBONYL).
TOXICOLOGY: Water-soluble nickel compounds do not readily enter cells; whereas, water-insoluble nickel compounds enter cells through phagocytosis and are carcinogenic. Carcinogenicity may be related to DNA protein binding, oxidation, and DNA-protein cross-linking by nickel.
EPIDEMIOLOGY: Exposure to nickel is common. Severe toxicity to forms other than nickel carbonyl is uncommon. Contact dermatitis or hypersensitivity, possibly severe, occurs in sensitized individuals (2% to 5% of the general population). Nickel is the most common cause of allergic contact sensitization.
TOXICITY: ADVERSE EFFECTS: Adverse effects can result from ingestion, skin contact, inhalation or parenteral routes of exposure; nickel may be absorbed from the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts as well as percutaneously.
INHALATION: Inhalation of nickel alloys or dust has been linked to pulmonary irritation, asthma, pneumoconiosis, pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary edema. Early symptoms after inhalation are dizziness, sore throat, hoarseness, and weakness. Gingivitis, stomatitis, metallic taste, nasal irritation, nasal mucosal damage, nasal septum perforation, hyposmia/anosmia, cough and shortness of breath are sometimes reported. Exposure to nickel fumes may result in "metal fume fever."
INGESTION: Oral toxicity of elemental nickel is low. Large doses taken orally may cause nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Elemental nickel is present in some foods and water, but dietary exposures are generally not significant.
DERMAL: "Nickel itch" may begin with a burning and itching sensation, followed by erythema and nodular eruptions. Once acquired, nickel sensitivity usually persists. Nickel and its inorganic compounds can be absorbed through the skin but not in amounts sufficient to cause intoxication.
PARENTERAL: Parenteral exposures may occur from implanted metal prostheses, stainless steel needles or contaminated dialysate solutions. Inflammatory reactions have occurred around nickel-containing prostheses and medical implants. Nickel intoxication from dialysis exposure includes nausea, vomiting, headache, weakness and palpitations.
CARCINOGENICITY: Some work environments (ie, nickel refinery work) and forms of nickel are associated with human malignancies, mainly nasal and respiratory cancers.

DERMATITIS

INCIDENCE: Nickel contact dermatitis is the most common reaction to nickel. It is estimated that 5% of all eczemas are nickel reactions (HSDB , 2000).
CAUSES: These dermal reactions may occur to a number of nickel-containing objects encountered externally or internally (Lacroix et al, 1979; Trombelli et al, 1992). Nickel may be the most common sensitizer in women due to exposure to coins, watches, kitchen appliances, and jewelry containing nickel (Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Krushell & Burnett, 1990). Suspected sensitization to nickel- and chromium-containing cosmetics has also been reported (Zemba et al, 1992).

GASTROINTESTINAL

INGESTION: Large oral doses of nickel salts can cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea (Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Lewis, 1998; Sunderman et al, 1988).
INHALATION: Inhalation may also cause nausea and vomiting that, in phase 2, may increase in severity to produce abdominal pain.

IMMUNOLOGIC

Nickel is a sensitizer (Haudrechy et al, 1994), which generally produces dermal responses but can also occasionally cause asthma (Ashford, 1951; Clayton & Clayton, 1994; McConnell et al, 1973).

NEUROLOGIC

INGESTION may result in headache and lassitude (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).

Workers who accidentally drank water contaminated with nickel sulfate and nickel chloride (1.63 g nickel/L) developed lassitude, headache, and giddiness (Sunderman et al, 1988).

CHRONIC CLINICAL EFFECTS

With chronic low-level exposure, nickel CAUSES CANCER and ALLERGIES in humans (Morgan & Usher, 1994).

Chronic exposure to nickel or its compounds can cause rhinitis, sinusitis, allergies, and cancer of the nasal sinus cavities, lungs, and possibly other organs. Nickel and nickel compounds are among the most common sensitizers inducing allergic contact dermatitis (ILO, 1998).

In the general population, sensitization occurs from exposure to nickel-containing coins, jewelry, watches, cooking utensils, and clothing fasteners. Nickel allergic sensitization can also involve red and itchy eyes, irritation of the lungs (Loeffler's syndrome), asthma, and local or systemic reactions to nickel-containing prostheses (ILO, 1983; ILO, 1998). Once acquired, nickel sensitivity apparently never resolves.

Cross-reaction between nickel (as the sulfate) and palladium (as the chloride) was the most frequently found cross-reactivity in a series of patch tests in 1,000 consecutive patients sensitive to at least one substance in a standard allergy battery (Santucci et al, 1996). There appears to be a sub-group of highly sensitive persons who can react to much lower concentrations of nickel and who also tend to react to nickel metal, cobalt salts, and palladium chloride (Uter et al, 1995).

Nickel is the most common contact allergen in Europe (Elsner & Burg, 1993). The prevalence of nickel allergy is 20% in young females, 10% in the elderly, and 2 to 4% in men. The critical determinant is the amount of nickel released to the skin, with 0.5 mcg/cm(3)/week being an apparent threshold (Menne, 1996). Once nickel allergy develops, it apparently never resolves (Hathaway et al, 1996).

Pretreatment with sodium lauryl sulfate can cause a higher response rate to nickel in patch testing in persons with known nickel sensitivity (Seidenari et al, 1996).

Nickel in food can be a source of chronic urticaria (Abeck et al, 1993) and other signs of allergy. In a group of 90 nickel-sensitive patients, 58 had definite improvement of dermatitis and 15 had a possible benefit from a low-nickel diet; patients with strong reactions on patch testing had less benefit than those with moderately positive reactions (Veien et al, 1993).

Workers exposed to nickel dusts and soluble nickel compound aerosols frequently develop chronic hypertrophic rhinitis and sinusitis. Nasal polyps, perforation of the nasal septum, chronic pulmonary irritation, and fibrosis have also been reported. Pneumoconiosis in nickel miners is thought to be due to concomitant exposure to silica (ACGIH, 1992) (Bingham et al, 2001).

Welders exposed to nickel alloy fumes have developed asthma, pulmonary edema, and pulmonary fibrosis (ACGIH, 1992).

Workers chronically exposed to high levels of soluble nickel salts had urinary small protein leakage (NAG, RBP, beta-2M) which correlated in some cases with urinary nickel excretion (Vyskocil et al, 1994a). Similar results were noted in rats (Vyskocil et al, 1994b).

In mice, tolerance to nickel sensitivity can be induced by oral administration of nickel compounds (Vanhoogstraten et al, 1993).

Nickel subsulfide in large, chronic intramuscular doses produced severe renal damage in mice (Rodriguez et al, 1996).

Nickel subsulfide (an experimental animal carcinogen) induced chronic inflammatory response in the lungs of rats exposed for 3 months by inhalation (Benson et al, 1995).

-FIRST AID

FIRST AID AND PREHOSPITAL TREATMENT

SUMMARY

Oral toxicity of elemental nickel is low. Most toxicity is due to chronic environmental or occupational exposures. Treatment is usually limited to fluid replacement in cases of severe vomiting and diarrhea. Prehospital gastrointestinal decontamination is unlikely to be necessary.

-MEDICAL TREATMENT

LIFE SUPPORT

Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

SUMMARY

FIRST AID - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)

Move victim to fresh air.
Call 911 or emergency medical service.
Give artificial respiration if victim is not breathing.
Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult.
Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes.
In case of contact with substance, immediately flush skin or eyes with running water for at least 20 minutes.
Keep victim warm and quiet.
Ensure that medical personnel are aware of the material(s) involved and take precautions to protect themselves.

FIRST AID

FIRST AID

DERMAL EXPOSURE: Immediately flush the contaminated skin with water. If this chemical penetrates the clothing, immediately remove the clothing and flush the skin with water. Get medical attention promptly.
INHALATION EXPOSURE: Move the exposed person to fresh air at once. If breathing has stopped, perform artificial respiration. Keep the affected person warm and at rest. Get medical attention as soon as possible.
ORAL EXPOSURE: If this chemical has been swallowed, get medical attention immediately.
TARGET ORGANS: Nasal cavities, lungs and skin [lung and nasal cancer] (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007).

INHALATION EXPOSURE

Move victims of inhalation exposure from the toxic environment and administer 100% humidified supplemental oxygen with assisted ventilation as required. Exposed skin and eyes should be copiously flushed with water.
INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
If bronchospasm and wheezing occur, consider treatment with inhaled sympathomimetic agents.
ACUTE LUNG INJURY: Maintain ventilation and oxygenation and evaluate with frequent arterial blood gases and/or pulse oximetry monitoring. Early use of PEEP and mechanical ventilation may be needed.

DERMAL EXPOSURE

DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).

EYE EXPOSURE

DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.

ORAL EXPOSURE

In occupational or environmental exposures, ingestion is unlikely.

-RANGE OF TOXICITY

MINIMUM LETHAL EXPOSURE

SUMMARY

Oral toxicity is low (10%), similar to zinc, chromium, and manganese (Errera, 1980). Toxicity via oral exposure is unusual. The usual adult oral intake of nickel is approximately 300 to 600 mcg/day.
The USEPA suggests that an intake of 0.02 mg/kg/day for soluble nickel compounds as safe for humans (Ashford, 1951).
INGESTION: 15 grams of nickel sulfate crystals proved to be fatal after a 2-1/2 year-old child ingested the substance (Harbison, 1998).

MAXIMUM TOLERATED EXPOSURE

SUMMARY

Metallic nickel is relatively nontoxic when ingested. Soluble nickel salts; however, are toxic when administered orally (Harbison, 1998).
A normal serum nickel level in humans was determined to be 0.011 mg% or 0.11 mcg/mL (HSDB , 2000).
Animal studies of both oral and inhalation exposure to nickel compounds have been extensively reviewed and compiled (Ashford, 1951).
ANIMALS: Metallic nickel powder at 1 to 3 g/kg body weight, and insoluble inorganic nickel compounds at 500 mg/kg when fed to dogs and rodents, respectively, were well tolerated (Harbison, 1998) (HSDB , 2002).

Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS7440-02-0 :

ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A4 ; Listed as: Nickel, soluble inorganic compounds (NOS)

A4 :Not Classifiable as a Human Carcinogen: Agents which cause concern that they could be carcinogenic for humans but which cannot be assessed conclusively because of a lack of data. In vitro or animal studies do not provide indications of carcinogenicity which are sufficient to classify the agent into one of the other categories.

ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A1 ; Listed as: Nickel, insoluble inorganic compounds (NOS)

A1 :Confirmed Human Carcinogen: The agent is carcinogenic to humans based on the weight of evidence from epidemiologic studies.

ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A5 ; Listed as: Nickel, elemental

A5 :Not Suspected as a Human Carcinogen: The agent is not suspected to be a human carcinogen on the basis of properly conducted epidemiologic studies in humans. These studies have sufficiently long follow-up, reliable exposure histories, sufficiently high dose, and adequate statistical power to conclude that exposure to the agent does not convey a significant risk of cancer to humans; OR, the evidence suggesting a lack of carcinogenicity in experimental animals is supported by mechanistic data.

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): A ; Listed as: Nickel refinery dust

A : Human Carcinogen.

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): Information reviewed but value not estimated. Refer to Full IRIS Summary. ; Listed as: Nickel, soluble salts
IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): 2B ; Listed as: Nickel, metallic and alloys

2B : The agent (mixture) is possibly carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are possibly carcinogenic to humans. This category is used for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which there is limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and less than sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. It may also be used when there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans but there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. In some instances, an agent, mixture or exposure circumstance for which there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans but limited evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals together with supporting evidence from other relevant data may be placed in this group.

NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Ca ; Listed as: Nickel metal and other compounds (as Ni)

Ca : NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards).

MAK (DFG, 2002): Category 1 ; Listed as: Nickel and nickel compounds (as inhalable dusts/aersosols)

Category 1 : Substances that cause cancer in man and can be assumed to make a significant contribution to cancer risk. Epidemiological studies provide adequate evidence of a positive correlation between the exposure of humans and the occurence of cancer. Limited epidemiological data can be substantiated by evidence that the substance causes cancer by a mode of action that is relevant to man.

MAK (DFG, 2002): Category 1 ; Listed as: Metallic nickel

Category 1 : Substances that cause cancer in man and can be assumed to make a significant contribution to cancer risk. Epidemiological studies provide adequate evidence of a positive correlation between the exposure of humans and the occurence of cancer. Limited epidemiological data can be substantiated by evidence that the substance causes cancer by a mode of action that is relevant to man.

NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): K ; Listed as: Nickel Compounds (See Nickel Compounds and Metallic Nickel )

K : KNOWN = Known to be a human carcinogen

NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): R ; Listed as: Nickel (Metallic) (See Nickel Compounds and Metallic Nickel )

R : RAHC = Reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen

TOXICITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT VALUES

EPA IRIS

EPA Risk Assessment Values for CAS7440-02-0 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011):

Oral:

Slope Factor:
RfD:

Inhalation:

Unit Risk: 2.4x10(-1) per mg/m3
RfC:

Drinking Water:

Unit Risk:

Oral:

Slope Factor:
RfD: 2x10(-2) mg/kg-day

Inhalation:

Unit Risk:
RfC:

Drinking Water:

Unit Risk:

TOXICITY VALUES

References: Bingham et al, 2001 ITI, 1995 Lewis, 2000 RTECS, 2002
- LD50- (INTRAPERITONEAL)RAT:
- LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
- LDLo- (SUBCUTANEOUS)CAT:
- LDLo- (INTRAVENOUS)DOG:
- LDLo- (ORAL)GUINEA_PIG:
- LDLo- (INTRAVENOUS)MOUSE:
- LDLo- (INTRAPERITONEAL)RABBIT:
- LDLo- (SUBCUTANEOUS)RABBIT:
- LDLo- (INTRAMUSCULAR)RAT:
- LDLo- (INTRATRACHEAL)RAT:
- LDLo- (ORAL)RAT:
- LDLo- (SUBCUTANEOUS)RAT:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)GUINEA_PIG:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)RABBIT:
- TCLo- (INTRAVENOUS)RABBIT:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)RAT:
- TD- (INTRAMUSCULAR)MOUSE:
- TD- (IMPLANT)RAT:
- TD- (INTRAMUSCULAR)RAT:
- TD- (INTRAPLEURAL)RAT:
- TDLo- (INTRAVENOUS)DOG:
- TDLo- (INTRAMUSCULAR)HAMSTER:
- TDLo- (IMPLANT)MOUSE:
- TDLo- (INTRAMUSCULAR)MOUSE:
- TDLo- (INTRAVENOUS)MOUSE:
- TDLo- (ORAL)MOUSE:
- TDLo- (IMPLANT)RABBIT:
- TDLo- (INTRAVENOUS)RABBIT:
- TDLo- (IMPLANT)RAT:
- TDLo- (INTRAMUSCULAR)RAT:
- TDLo- (INTRAPERITONEAL)RAT:
- TDLo- (INTRAPLEURAL)RAT:
- TDLo- (INTRAVENOUS)RAT:
- TDLo- (ORAL)RAT:
- TDLo- (SUBCUTANEOUS)RAT:

-STANDARDS AND LABELS

WORKPLACE STANDARDS

ACGIH TLV Values for CAS7440-02-0 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):

Editor's Note: The listed values are recommendations or guidelines developed by ACGIH(R) to assist in the control of health hazards. They should only be used, interpreted and applied by individuals trained in industrial hygiene. Before applying these values, it is imperative to read the introduction to each section in the current TLVs(R) and BEI(R) Book and become familiar with the constraints and limitations to their use. Always consult the Documentation of the TLVs(R) and BEIs(R) before applying these recommendations and guidelines.

Adopted Value

Nickel, soluble inorganic compounds (NOS)

TLV:

TLV-TWA: 0.1 mg/m(3)
TLV-STEL:
TLV-Ceiling:

Notations and Endnotes:

Carcinogenicity Category: A4
Codes: I
Definitions:

A4: Not Classifiable as a Human Carcinogen: Agents which cause concern that they could be carcinogenic for humans but which cannot be assessed conclusively because of a lack of data. In vitro or animal studies do not provide indications of carcinogenicity which are sufficient to classify the agent into one of the other categories.
I: Inhalable fraction; see Appendix C, paragraph A (of TLV booklet).

TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): Lung dam; nasal cancer
Molecular Weight: Varies

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3):

[(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm:

[(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance

Adopted Value

Nickel, insoluble inorganic compounds (NOS)

TLV:

TLV-TWA: 0.2 mg/m(3)
TLV-STEL:
TLV-Ceiling:

Notations and Endnotes:

Carcinogenicity Category: A1
Codes: I
Definitions:

A1: Confirmed Human Carcinogen: The agent is carcinogenic to humans based on the weight of evidence from epidemiologic studies.
I: Inhalable fraction; see Appendix C, paragraph A (of TLV booklet).

TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): Lung cancer
Molecular Weight: Varies

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3):

[(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm:

[(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance

Adopted Value

Nickel, elemental

TLV:

TLV-TWA: 1.5 mg/m(3)
TLV-STEL:
TLV-Ceiling:

Notations and Endnotes:

Carcinogenicity Category: A5
Codes: I
Definitions:

A5: Not Suspected as a Human Carcinogen: The agent is not suspected to be a human carcinogen on the basis of properly conducted epidemiologic studies in humans. These studies have sufficiently long follow-up, reliable exposure histories, sufficiently high dose, and adequate statistical power to conclude that exposure to the agent does not convey a significant risk of cancer to humans; OR, the evidence suggesting a lack of carcinogenicity in experimental animals is supported by mechanistic data.
I: Inhalable fraction; see Appendix C, paragraph A (of TLV booklet).

TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): Dermatitis; pneumoconiosis
Molecular Weight: 58.71

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3):

[(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm:

[(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance

AIHA WEEL Values for CAS7440-02-0 (AIHA, 2006):

Not Listed

NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS7440-02-0 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):

Listed as: Nickel metal and other compounds (as Ni)
REL:

TWA: 0.015 mg/m(3)
STEL:
Ceiling:
Carcinogen Listing: (Ca) NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards).
Skin Designation: Not Listed
Note(s): See Appendix A; [*Note: The REL does not apply to Nickel carbonyl.]

IDLH:

IDLH: 10 mg Ni/m3
Note(s): Ca

Ca: NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A).

OSHA PEL Values for CAS7440-02-0 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):

Listed as: Nickel, metal and insoluble compounds (as Ni)
Table Z-1 for Nickel, metal and insoluble compounds (as Ni):

8-hour TWA:

ppm:

Parts of vapor or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25 degrees C and 760 torr.

mg/m3: 1

Milligrams of substances per cubic meter of air. When entry is in this column only, the value is exact; when listed with a ppm entry, it is approximate.

Ceiling Value:
Skin Designation: No
Notation(s): Not Listed

Listed as: Nickel, soluble compounds (as Ni)
Table Z-1 for Nickel, soluble compounds (as Ni):

8-hour TWA:

ppm:

Parts of vapor or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25 degrees C and 760 torr.

mg/m3: 1

Milligrams of substances per cubic meter of air. When entry is in this column only, the value is exact; when listed with a ppm entry, it is approximate.

Ceiling Value:
Skin Designation: No
Notation(s): Not Listed

OSHA List of Highly Hazardous Chemicals, Toxics, and Reactives for CAS7440-02-0 (U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2010):

Not Listed

ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS

EPA CERCLA, Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities for CAS7440-02-0 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Listed as: Nickel
Final Reportable Quantity, in pounds (kilograms):

100 (45.4)

Additional Information:
Listed as: Nickel and compounds

Additional Information:
Listed as: Nickel compounds

Additional Information:

EPA CERCLA, Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities, Radionuclides for CAS7440-02-0 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Not Listed

EPA RCRA Hazardous Waste Number for CAS7440-02-0 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010b):

Not Listed
Editor's Note: The D, F, and K series waste numbers and Appendix VIII to Part 261 -- Hazardous Constituents were not included. Please refer to 40 CFR Part 261.

EPA SARA Title III, Extremely Hazardous Substance List for CAS7440-02-0 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Not Listed

EPA SARA Title III, Community Right-to-Know for CAS7440-02-0 (40 CFR 372.65, 2006; 40 CFR 372.28, 2006):

Listed as: Nickel Compounds: Includes any unique chemical substance that contains nickel as part of that chemical's infrastructure
Effective Date for Reporting Under 40 CFR 372.30: 1/1/87
Lower Thresholds for Chemicals of Special Concern under 40 CFR 372.28:

Listed as: Nickel
Effective Date for Reporting Under 40 CFR 372.30: 1/1/87
Lower Thresholds for Chemicals of Special Concern under 40 CFR 372.28:

DOT List of Marine Pollutants for CAS7440-02-0 (49 CFR 172.101 - App. B, 2005):

Not Listed

EPA TSCA Inventory for CAS7440-02-0 (EPA, 2005):

Listed as: Nickel

SHIPPING REGULATIONS

SURFACE

DOT -- Table of Hazardous Materials and Special Provisions (49 CFR 172.101, 2005):

Not Listed

ICAO International Shipping Name (ICAO, 2002):

Not Listed

LABELS

NFPA

NFPA Hazard Ratings for CAS7440-02-0 (NFPA, 2002):

Not Listed

-HANDLING AND STORAGE

SUMMARY

INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS

Store nickel in cool, dry, well-ventilated locations far from flames, sparks, and combustible materials (NFPA, 1997; Sittig, 1991).

HANDLING

All precautions for handling carcinogens should be observed when working with nickel (HSDB , 2002).

STORAGE

CONTAINER

If storing Raney nickel in drums, displace air with carbon dioxide before sealing and shake drums before opening to wet any catalyst near the top (Urben, 1999).

ROOM/CABINET RECOMMENDATIONS

A cool, dry, and well-ventilated location is necessary for the storage of nickel (NFPA, 1997).
The activated catalyst, Raney nickel, should be kept under alcohol, water, ether, methylcyclohexane, or dioxane (Budavari, 2000; NFPA, 1997).
Store nickel far from flames, sparks, or other sources of ignition (HSDB , 2002).

INCOMPATIBILITIES

Nickel in the presence of acids, oxidizing materials, sulfur, hydrazine, or hydrazoic acid may cause violent decomposition reactions (NFPA, 1997).
Strong acids, selenium, sulfur, nickel nitrate, wood, and other combustibles are incompatible with nickel and its soluble compounds (NIOSH , 2002; Sittig, 1991).
Please see the "Reactivity Hazard" section for a comprehensive list of incompatibilities and reactivities.

-PERSONAL PROTECTION

SUMMARY

RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)

Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
Wear chemical protective clothing that is specifically recommended by the manufacturer. It may provide little or no thermal protection.
Structural firefighters' protective clothing will only provide limited protection.

Full protective clothing, including positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus, should be worn when working with nickel (NFPA, 1997).

Barrier creams, along with full-body protective clothing, are recommended to prevent skin contact with nickel. If contact should occur, wash immediately. Clothing should be changed daily if possibly contaminated with nickel, and if contamination knowingly occurs, clothing should be promptly removed. Wash at the end of each work shift (NIOSH , 2002; Sittig, 1991).

EYE/FACE PROTECTION

Thick safety glasses should be worn when in the presence of nickel (HSDB , 1999).

Devices necessary for personal protection, such as goggles and barrier shields should be used (HSDB , 2002).

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

Refer to "Recommendations for respirator selection" in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards on TOMES Plus(R) for respirator information.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. Search results for CAS 7440-02-0.

Specific recommendations and test data for this chemical were not found in the available manufacturers' product literature. A complete list of consulted manufacturers and references is presented below.

-PHYSICAL HAZARDS

FIRE HAZARD

SUMMARY

Editor's Note: This material is not listed in the Emergency Response Guidebook. Based on the material's physical and chemical properties, toxicity, or chemical group, a guide has been assigned. For additional technical information, contact one of the emergency response telephone numbers listed under Public Safety Measures.
POTENTIAL FIRE OR EXPLOSION HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)
- Flammable/combustible material.
- May ignite on contact with air or moisture.
- May burn rapidly with flare-burning effect.
- Some react vigorously or explosively on contact with water.
- Some may decompose explosively when heated or involved in a fire.
- May re-ignite after fire is extinguished.
- Runoff may create fire or explosion hazard.
- Containers may explode when heated.

FLAMMABILITY CLASSIFICATION

NFPA Flammability Rating for CAS7440-02-0 (NFPA, 2002):

Not Listed

FIRE CONTROL/EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)

DO NOT USE WATER, CO2 OR FOAM ON MATERIAL ITSELF.
Some of these materials may react violently with water.
EXCEPTION: For Xanthates, UN3342 and for Dithionite (Hydrosulfite/Hydrosulphite) UN1384, UN1923 and UN1929, USE FLOODING AMOUNTS OF WATER for SMALL AND LARGE fires to stop the reaction. Smothering will not work for these materials, they do not need air to burn.

SMALL FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)

Dry chemical, soda ash, lime or DRY sand, EXCEPT for UN1384, UN1923 and UN1929.

LARGE FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)

DRY sand, dry chemical, soda ash or lime EXCEPT for UN1384, UN1923 and UN1929, or withdraw from area and let fire burn.
Move containers from fire area if you can do it without risk.

TANK OR CAR/TRAILER LOAD FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)

Fight fire from maximum distance or use unmanned hose holders or monitor nozzles.
Do not get water inside containers or in contact with substance.
Cool containers with flooding quantities of water until well after fire is out.
Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety devices or discoloration of tank.
ALWAYS stay away from tanks engulfed in fire.

NFPA Extinguishing Methods for CAS7440-02-0 (NFPA, 2002):

Not Listed

Use approved class D extinguishers or smother with dry clay, dry sand, or dry ground limestone. Carbon dioxide or halogenated extinguishing agents should NOT be used on fires involving nickel (NFPA, 1997).

"Use dry chemical, soda ash, or lime extinguishers" (Sittig, 1991).

COMBUSTION TOXICITY

Fires involving nickel may release toxic gases and vapors (HSDB , 2002).

EXPLOSION HAZARD

If contact with ignition source occurs, mixtures of air and finely divided nickel may explode (NFPA, 1997).

Evaporation with methanol, ethanol, pentanol, isopropanol, acetone, benzene, p-dioxane, or cyclohexane followed by heating near 200 degrees C causes Raney nickel to eventually explode (Urben, 1999).

Supported nickel catalysts will cause mixtures of ethylene and aluminum chloride to rapidly heat and explode (Urben, 1999).

During a friction test, mixtures containing potassium perchlorate with infusorial earth and titanium and nickel powders gave severe explosions when subjected to very small sparks (NFPA, 1997).

An explosion occurs when 2-3 drops of 90% peroxyformic acid are added to powdered nickel (Urben, 1999).

Above 210 degrees C, dioxane undergoes an almost explosive reaction with Raney nickel catalyst (Urben, 1999).

REACTIVITY HAZARD

Spontaneous ignition in air is possible with powdered nickel (ACGIH, 1991; Ashford, 1951; Lewis, 2000; Pohanish & Greene, 1997).

Nickel will burn in oxygen to form nickel (II) oxide (ACGIH, 1991; Budavari, 2000).

Nickel is attacked slowly by sulfuric or dilute hydrochloric acid; it is readily attacked by nitric acid (Budavari, 2000).

Highly flammable hydrogen gas is evolved when nickel undergoes reactions with acids (NFPA, 1997; Pohanish & Greene, 1997).

"Reacts violently with fluorine, ammonium nitrate, hydrazine, ammonia, (hydrogen + dioxane), performic acid, phosphorus, selenium, sulfur, (titanium + potassium chlorate). Incompatible with oxidants (e.g., bromine pentafluoride, peroxyformic acid, potassium perchlorate, chlorine, nitryl fluoride, ammonium nitrate); Raney-nickel catalysts may initiate hazardous reactions with ethylene + aluminum chloride; p-dioxane; hydrogen; hydrogen + oxygen; magnesium silicate; methanol; organic solvents + heat; sulfur compounds" (Lewis, 2000).

Hydrazine in the presence of Raney nickel may undergo vigorous catalytic decomposition at room temperature (NFPA, 1997)

Hydrazoic acid and Raney nickel will decompose vigorously (NFPA, 1997).

Performic acid may undergo violent decomposition if allowed to contact powdered nickel (NFPA, 1997).

Powdered nickel with selenium or sulfur will unite with incandescence if heated (NFPA, 1997; Urben, 1999).

If allowed to contact liquid or cryogenic gaseous oxygen, Raney nickel powder entrained in cryogenic gas will ignite (Urben, 1999).

Nickel powder may react violently with fused ammonium nitrate at temperatures below 200 degrees C (HSDB , 2001; Urben, 1999).

If allowed to contact bromine pentafluoride at ambient to slightly elevated temperatures, nickel powder is likely to ignite (Urben, 1999).

Nickel may react violently if exposed to nitric acid (Pohanish & Greene, 1997).

When nitryl fluoride is passed over nickel with mild warming, glowing or white incandescence occurs (Urben, 1999).

When 2-3 drops of 90% peroxyformic acid were added to nickel powder, the reaction was violent (Urben, 1999).

EVACUATION PROCEDURES

SUMMARY

Editor's Note: This material is not listed in the Table of Initial Isolation and Protective Action Distances.

SPILL - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)

Increase, in the downwind direction, as necessary, the isolation distance of at least 50 meters (150 feet) in all directions for liquids and at least 25 meters (75 feet) in all directions for solids.

FIRE - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)

If tank, rail car or tank truck is involved in a fire, ISOLATE for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions; also, consider initial evacuation for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions.

PUBLIC SAFETY MEASURES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135(ERG, 2004)

CALL Emergency Response Telephone Number on Shipping Paper first. If Shipping Paper not available or no answer, refer to appropriate telephone number:

MEXICO:

SETIQ:

01-800-00-214-00 in the Mexican Republic;
For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5559-1588;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-559-1588.

CENACOM:

01-800-00-413-00 in the Mexican Republic;
For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5550-1496, 5550-1552, 5550-1485, or 5550-4885;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-550-1496, or 011-52-555-550-1552; 011-52-555-550-1485, or 011-52-555-550-4885.

ARGENTINA:

CIQUIME:

0-800-222-2933 in the Republic of Argentina;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: +54-11-4613-1100.

BRAZIL:

PRÓ-QUÍMICA:

0-800-118270 (Toll-free in Brazil);
For calls originating elsewhere, call: +55-11-232-1144 (Collect calls are accepted).

COLUMBIA:

CISPROQUIM:

01-800-091-6012 in Colombia;
For calls originating in Bogotá, Colombia, call: 288-6012;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-57-1-288-6012.

CANADA:

CANUTEC:

613-996-6666 (Collect calls are accepted);
*666 cellular (in Canada only).

UNITED STATES:

CHEMTREC®:

1-800-424-9300 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
703-527-3887 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

CHEM-TEL, INC.:

1-800-255-3924 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
813-248-0585 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

INFOTRAC:

1-800-535-5053 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
352-323-3500 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

3E COMPANY:

1-800-451-8346 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
760-602-8703 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

NATIONAL RESPONSE CENTER (NRC):

1-800-424-8802 - (24 hours) (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
202-267-2675 for calls in the District of Columbia.

MILITARY SHIPMENTS:

703-697-0218 - Explosives/ammunition incidents (Collect calls are accepted);
1-800-851-8061 - All other dangerous goods incidents.

NATIONWIDE POISON CONTROL CENTER (United States only):

1-800-222-1222 (Toll-free in the U.S.).

For additional details see the section entitled "WHO TO CALL FOR ASSISTANCE" under the ERG Instructions.
As an immediate precautionary measure, isolate spill or leak area in all directions for at least 50 meters (150 feet) for liquids and at least 25 meters (75 feet) for solids.
Stay upwind.
Keep unauthorized personnel away.
Keep out of low areas.

AIHA ERPG Values for CAS7440-02-0 (AIHA, 2006):

Not Listed

DOE TEEL Values for CAS7440-02-0 (U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management, 2010):

Listed as Nickel
TEEL-0 (units = mg/m3): 1
TEEL-1 (units = mg/m3): 4.5
TEEL-2 (units = mg/m3): 10
TEEL-3 (units = mg/m3): 10
Definitions:

TEEL-0: The threshold concentration below which most people will experience no adverse health effects.
TEEL-1: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm [parts per million] or mg/m(3) [milligrams per cubic meter]) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience notable discomfort, irritation, or certain asymptomatic, nonsensory effects. However, these effects are not disabling and are transient and reversible upon cessation of exposure.
TEEL-2: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m(3)) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience irreversible or other serious, long-lasting, adverse health effects or an impaired ability to escape.
TEEL-3: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m(3)) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience life-threatening adverse health effects or death.

AEGL Values for CAS7440-02-0 (National Research Council, 2010; National Research Council, 2009; National Research Council, 2008; National Research Council, 2007; NRC, 2001; NRC, 2002; NRC, 2003; NRC, 2004; NRC, 2004; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; 62 FR 58840, 1997; 65 FR 14186, 2000; 65 FR 39264, 2000; 65 FR 77866, 2000; 66 FR 21940, 2001; 67 FR 7164, 2002; 68 FR 42710, 2003; 69 FR 54144, 2004):

Not Listed

NIOSH IDLH Values for CAS7440-02-0 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):

IDLH: 10 mg Ni/m3
Note(s): Ca

(Ca) NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A).

CONTAINMENT/WASTE TREATMENT OPTIONS

SUMMARY

SPILL OR LEAK PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)
- Fully encapsulating, vapor protective clothing should be worn for spills and leak with no fire.
- ELIMINATE all ignition sources (no smoking, flares, sparks or flames in immediate area).
- Do not touch or walk through spilled material.
- Stop leak if you can do it without risk.
RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)
- Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
- Wear chemical protective clothing that is specifically recommended by the manufacturer. It may provide little or no thermal protection.
- Structural firefighters' protective clothing will only provide limited protection.
Dry sand, dry clay, or dry ground limestone can be used to blanket the release, which can then be shoveled into a suitable dry container (NFPA, 1997).
Only persons wearing appropriate protective equipment should be allowed near the spill, and sources of ignition should be removed from the area. Dry chemicals, sand, water spray, or foam can be used during the clean-up of the spilled material. If powdered material is involved, collect and deposit in sealed containers. To prevent explosion or fire, keep spills involving nickel catalyst out of confined spaces (Sittig, 1991).
Clean-up may be accomplished through in situ amelioration. Lime can be added to form nickel hydroxide or cation exchange can be used. EPA's Environmental Response Team (ERT) should be contacted for professional environmental engineering assistance (OHM/TADS, 2002).

SMALL LEAK/SPILL

SMALL SPILL PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 135 (ERG, 2004)
- EXCEPTION: For spills of Xanthates, UN3342 and for Dithionite (Hydrosulfite/Hydrosulphite), UN1384, UN1923 and UN1929, dissolve in 5 parts water and collect for proper disposal.
- Cover with DRY earth, DRY sand, or other non-combustible material followed with plastic sheet to minimize spreading or contact with rain.
- Use clean non-sparking tools to collect material and place it into loosely covered plastic containers for later disposal.
- Prevent entry into waterways, sewers, basements or confined areas.

WASTE TREATMENT OPTIONS

RECYCLING/RECLAMATION

It is possible to recover and recycle nickel from various industrial wastes (Sittig, 1991)
Ion exchange is a fairly widespread recovery method for nickel, as the costs incurred during this process are recovered through reductions in nickel salt purchases and waste treatment expenses (Freeman, 1998).
Waste management activities associated with material disposition are unique to individual situations. Proper waste characterization and decisions regarding waste management should be coordinated with the appropriate local, state, or federal authorities to ensure compliance with all applicable rules and regulations.

PHYSICAL TREATMENT

To dispose of nickel compounds, encapsulation followed by placement in a chemical waste landfill is recommended (Sittig, 1991).

-ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD MANAGEMENT

POLLUTION HAZARD

Nickel is naturally present in the earth's crust at 0.018%, in meteorites, and in ores as various compounds. Soil, sea, volcanoes, forest fires, and vegetation are among the natural sources of airborne particles containing nickel. Approximately 8.5 million kg of nickel are emitted into the atmosphere from such sources each year (Ashford, 1951; HSDB, 2004).

Artificial sources of atmospheric nickel, which account for approximately 43 million kg per year, include the combustion of residual and fuel oil, nickel metal refining, municipal incineration, and steel production (Ashford, 1951; HSDB , 1999).

Levels in the ambient air are associated with anthropogenic sources, such as (Galbreath et al, 2003):

combustion and incineration sources (oil- and coal-burning units in utility, industrial, and residential scenarios or medical, municipal, and sewage sludge incinerators);
high-temperature metallurgical operations (steel and nickel alloy manufacturing, secondary metals smelting, and coproduct nickel recovery);
primary production operations (mining, milling, smelting, and refining); and
chemical and catalyst sources (nickel chemical manufacturing, electroplating, nickel-cadmium battery manufacturing, and catalyst production, use, and reclamation).

Levels in the ambient air are associated with anthropogenic sources, such as (Galbreath et al, 2003): combustion and incineration sources (oil- and coal-burning units in utility, industrial, and residential scenarios or medical, municipal, and sewage sludge incinerators);high-temperature metallurgical operations (steel and nickel alloy manufacturing, secondary metals smelting, and coproduct nickel recovery);primary production operations (mining, milling, smelting, and refining); andchemical and catalyst sources (nickel chemical manufacturing, electroplating, nickel-cadmium battery manufacturing, and catalyst production, use, and reclamation).

combustion and incineration sources (oil- and coal-burning units in utility, industrial, and residential scenarios or medical, municipal, and sewage sludge incinerators);
high-temperature metallurgical operations (steel and nickel alloy manufacturing, secondary metals smelting, and coproduct nickel recovery);
primary production operations (mining, milling, smelting, and refining); and
chemical and catalyst sources (nickel chemical manufacturing, electroplating, nickel-cadmium battery manufacturing, and catalyst production, use, and reclamation).

Mobile source contribution is small (engine wear and engine oil and fuel additive impurities), although commercial marine vessels are significant sources of nickel in harbor areas (Galbreath et al, 2003).

ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND KINETICS

Average Concentration of airborne nickel (Ashford, 1951):
- Remote Areas: 0.00001-0.003 mcg/m(3)
- Urban Areas: 0.003-0.03 mcg/m(3)
- Nickel-processing areas: 0.07-0.77 mcg/m(3)
Nickel and its compounds are released to the air primarily in the form of aerosols, the particles of which exist in a broad range of sizes. The aerosols are removed from the atmosphere by gravitational settling and by dry and wet deposition, depending upon the size of the particles. The smallest particles are estimated to have a half-life of up to 30 days, while coarse particles may be removed in hours (ASTDR, 1993).

WATER

SURFACE WATER
- As nickel is a natural constituent of soil, it enters waterways and streams via runoff due to natural weathering or from disturbed soil. It is also released to water through atmospheric deposition. This released nickel will then accumulate in sediment (Ashford, 1951).
- Nickel hexahydrate is the predominant form of nickel in aerobic waters at environmental pHs. Above pH 9.5, nickel is primarily in the form of nickel hydroxide (Ashford, 1951).

SOIL

TERRESTRIAL
- Unnatural sources of nickel in soil are due primarily to coal fly ash and bottom ash, metal-manufacturing waste, atmospheric fallout, urban refuse, and sewer sludge (Ashford, 1951).
- Nickel is adsorbed strongly by soil, but the extent of adsorption is site specific, as the retention of metals is dependent upon soil texture, bulk density, pH, and the presence of clay materials, organic matter, and hydroxides. The leachability of nickel is pH dependent, as low pH values lead to higher mobility (Ashford, 1951).

ABIOTIC DEGRADATION

Nickel in the atmosphere is removed by wet or dry deposition, with half-life dependent on particle size. Atmospheric deposition contributes to nickel levels in soil and water. Water is also impacted by naturally occurring levels in soil, as nickel will enter water resources from soil disturbance, runoff, or natural weathering. It adsorbs to soil particles and accumulates in aquatic sediments, with adsorption and chemical form influenced by the soil properties, pH, and soil characteristics. Soil mobility of nickel is possible through leaching mechanisms and this potential will increase with lower pH (Ashford, 1951).

BIOACCUMULATION

FISH

Nickel is not expected to accumulate in fish (ASTDR, 1993).

PLANTS

AQUATIC
- According to two studies, nickel does not appear to accumulate in plants or small animals (ASTDR, 1993).

BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR

Bioconcentration Factors (BCFs) (Ashford, 1951):
- Fish: 40-100
- Invertebrates: 100-259

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICITY

ECOTOXICITY STUDIES

Factors that influence nickel toxicity to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelus) include fish age, organic matter/organic carbon, and water quality (hardness, pH, alkalinity). One study described a strong relationship between such factors and nickel's toxicity to fathead minnows as follows: 96H LC50 = -0.642 + 0.270(fish age) + 0.005(alkalinity) + 0.018(hardness) + 0.138(dissolved organic carbon). The study reported fish age to be the strongest factor, with older minnows (28 days) 5- to 10-fold more tolerant to nickel toxicity than young (1 day) (Hoang et al, 2004).

ECOTOXICITY VALUES

FRESHWATER TOXICITY VALUES (OHM/TADS, 2002)

LC50 - (WATER) ACRONEURIA: 33.5 ppm for 96H -- static, sulfate test environment
LC50 - (WATER) EPHEMERELLA: 4 ppm for 96H -- static, sulfate test environment
LC50 - (WATER) FATHEAD MINNOW: 27-32 ppm for 96H -- static, chloride, hard water
LC50 - (WATER) HYDROPSYCHE: 64 ppm for 336H -- static, sulfate test environment
LC50 - (WATER) RAINBOW TROUT: 302 ppm for 48H -- static test environment
LD50 - (WATER) ASPERGILLUS NIGER: 0.9 ppm for 40H -- as chloride
LETHAL - (WATER) STICKLEBACK: 0.8 ppm
LETHAL - (WATER) DAPHNIA: 10 ppm -- lake
NOEL -(WATER) FATHEAD MINNOW: 0.38 ppm for 11 months -- flow through, chloride, hard water
SURVIVAL TIME - (WATER) GOLDFISH: 10 ppm for 200 to 210H -- very soft water
SURVIVAL TIME - (WATER) GOLDFISH: 100 ppm for 19.4 to 50.4H -- very soft water
SURVIVAL TIME - (WATER) GOLDFISH: 1000 ppm for 0.33 to 0.5H -- very soft water
SURVIVAL TIME - (WATER) GOLDFISH: 1000 ppm for 12 to 18H -- hard water
THRESHOLD - (WATER) DAPHNIA MAGNA: 6 ppm
TLm - (WATER) AMERICAN EEL: 13 ppm for 96H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER) AMERICAN EEL: 13.2 ppm for 48H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)AMERICAN EEL: 14 ppm for 24H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)BANDED KILLFISH: 46.2 ppm for 96H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)BANDED KILLFISH: 50.8 ppm for 48H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)BANDED KILLFISH: 63.2 ppm for 24H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)CARP: 10.6 ppm for 96H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)CARP: 29.1 ppm for 48H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)CARP: 38.2 ppm for 24H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)PUMPKIN SEED: 8.1 ppm for 96H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)PUMPKIN SEED: 12 ppm or 48H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)PUMPKIN SEED: 16.4 ppm for 24H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)RAINBOW TROUT: 25 ppm for 48H -- river
TLm - (WATER)STRIPED BASS: 6.2 ppm for 96H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)STRIPED BASS: 8.4 ppm for 48H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)STRIPED BASS: 10 ppm for 24H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)WHITE PERCH: 13.6 ppm for 96H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)WHITE PERCH: 16.2 ppm for 48H -- Hudson River
TLm - (WATER)WHITE PERCH: 18.4 ppm for 24H -- Hudson River

SALTWATER TOXICITY VALUES

SALTWATER TOXICITY (OHM/TADS, 2002)

LC50 -(WATER) COCKLE: >500 ppm for 48H -- aerated
LC50 - (WATER)CRAB: 255 ppm for 48H -- aerated
LC50 - (WATER)OYSTER: 100-150 ppm for 48H -- aerated
LC50 - (WATER)PRAWN: 13.9 ppm for 48H -- aerated
LC50 - (WATER)SHRIMP: 125 ppm for 48H -- aerated
LETHAL - (WATER)FISH: 12 ppm for 24H
LETHAL - (WATER)FISH: 0.8 ppm for 240H
LETHAL - (WATER)OYSTERS: 0.121 ppm over long term
TLm - (WATER)MARINE FISH: 125 ppm for 48H -- seawater
TL50 - (WATER)FATHEAD MINNOW: 2710 ppm for 96H

-PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

MOLECULAR WEIGHT

58.71

DESCRIPTION/PHYSICAL STATE

Nickel exists as a silvery-white, hard, malleable, magnetic metal which shows excellent resistance to corrosion. Crystalline nickel exists as metallic cubes. Raney nickel appears as either a grayish-black powder or as cubic crystals (Ashford, 1994; (Budavari, 2000; Lewis, 2000).

VAPOR PRESSURE

1 mmHg at 1810 degrees C (Ashford, 1951; Lewis, 2000)

0 mmHg (approximately) (NIOSH , 2002)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE NOT LISTED

8.90 (Lewis, 2000; NFPA, 1997)
9.90 (Clayton & Clayton, 1994)
8.91 (at 20 degrees C) (ITI, 1995)
8.908 (HSDB , 2002)

DENSITY

NORMAL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

(25 degrees C; 77 degrees F and 760 mmHg)
8.90 g/mL (HSDB , 2002; Lewis, 2000)

TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE NOT LISTED

8.91 kg/L (Ashford, 1994; (ITI, 1995)
8.908 g/mL (Budavari, 2000; Lewis, 1997)
8.90 g/cm(3) (Bingham, et al, 2001)

FREEZING/MELTING POINT

MELTING POINT

1454 degrees C (Ashford, 1994)
1455 degrees C; 2651 degrees F (ACGIH, 1991; Bingham et al, 2001; ITI, 1995; Lewis, 2000; NFPA, 1997)
1453 degrees C (Budavari, 2000)
2831 degrees F (NIOSH , 2002)

BOILING POINT

2920 degrees C (ACGIH, 1991; Lewis, 2000)

2732 degrees C (calculated) (Budavari, 2000)

2837 degrees C; 3110 degrees K (calculated) (Budavari, 2000)

2900 degrees C (ITI, 1995; Lewis, 1997)

2730 degrees C; 4946 degrees F (Bingham et al, 2001; NFPA, 1997)

5139 degrees F (NIOSH , 2002)

EXPLOSIVE LIMITS

LOWER

Not Applicable (NIOSH , 2002)

UPPER

Not Applicable (NIOSH , 2002)

SOLUBILITY

IN WATER

Insoluble (ACGIH, 1991; Bingham et al, 2001; Budavari, 2000; NFPA, 1997)

OTHER

SOLUBILITY, OTHER

Nickel is slightly soluble in sulfuric or hydrochloric acid (ACGIH, 1991; Budavari, 2000; HSDB , 2002)
Nickel is soluble in nitric acid (ACGIH, 1991; Budavari, 2000) HSDB, 2002)
Insoluble in ammonia (HSDB , 2002)
Nickel will dissolve in dilute oxidizing acids (Bingham et al, 2001)

OTHER/PHYSICAL

ODOR THRESHOLD

Odorless (HSDB , 2002)

HEAT OF FUSION

73 cal/g (Budavari, 2000; HSDB , 2002)

-REFERENCES

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

40 CFR 372.28: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Lower thresholds for chemicals of special concern. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO). Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.

40 CFR 372.65: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Chemicals and Chemical Categories to which this part applies. National Archives and Records Association (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.

49 CFR 172.101 - App. B: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials, Appendix B: List of Marine Pollutants. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 29, 2005.

49 CFR 172.101: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 11, 2005.

62 FR 58840: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 1997.

65 FR 14186: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

65 FR 39264: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

65 FR 77866: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

66 FR 21940: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2001.

67 FR 7164: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2002.

68 FR 42710: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2003.

69 FR 54144: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2004.

ACGIH: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 6th ed, Am Conference of Govt Ind Hyg, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, 1991.

AIHA: 2006 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines and Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook, American Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006.

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists : ACGIH 2010 Threshold Limit Values (TLVs(R)) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs(R)), American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH, 2010.

Andersen A, Berge SR, & Engeland A: Exposure to nickel compounds and smoking in relation to incidence of lung and nasal cancer among nickel refinery workers. Occup Environ Med 1996; 53:708-713.

Anon: Diagnostic oral challenge with nickel, cobalt and chromium in patients with negative patch tests. ACTA Derm Venereol 1989; 147(Suppl):19-22.

Anon: Nickel and/or cobalt as the cause of systemic contact dermatitis in patch test positive patients. ACTA Derm Venereol 1989a; 147(Suppl):12-16.

Antico A & Soana R: Chronic allergic-like dermatopathies in nickel-sensitive patients. Results of dietary restrictions and challenge with nickel salts. Allergy Asthma Proc 1999; 20(4):235-242.

Ashford R: Ashford's Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals. Wavelength Publications Ltd, London, England, 1994. .SK 1 Assier-Bonnet H, Lestang P & Revuz J: Contact sensitivity to surgical skin clips. Contact Derm 1998; 38:117. .SK 1 ATSDR: Toxicological Profile for Nickel. US Public Health Service, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, GA, Report TP-92/14, 1993. .SK 1 Bagot M, Terki N, Bacha S et al: Per os desensitization in nickel contact eczema: a double-blind placebo-controlled clinico-biological study. Ann Dermatol Venereoll 1999; Jun-Jul; 126(6-7):502-4. .SK 1 Barkvoll P & Rolla G: Triclosan reduces the clinical symptoms of the allergic patch test reaction (APR) elicited with 1% nickel sulphate in sensitized patients. J Clin Periodontol 1995; 22:483-487. .SK 1 Barnes JM & Denz FA: Effect of 2-3 dimercapto-propanol (BAL) on experimental nickel carbonyl poisoning. Br J Med 1951; 8:117-126.

Baselt RC: Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 5th ed, Chemical Toxicology Institute, Foster City, CA, 2000.

Benson JM, Cheng YS, & Eidson AF: Pulmonary toxicity of nickel subsulfide in F344/N rats exposed for 1-22 days. Toxicology 1995; 103:9-22.

Bingham E, Cohrssen B, & Powell CH: Patty's Toxicology, Vol 1 & 3. 5th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2001.

Budavari S: The Merck Index, 12th ed. on CD-ROM. Version 12:3a. Chapman & Hall/CRCnetBASE. Whitehouse Station, NJ. 2000.

Burgess JL, Kirk M, Borron SW, et al: Emergency department hazardous materials protocol for contaminated patients. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 34(2):205-212.

Christensen OB & Kristensen M: Treatment with disulfiram in chronic nickel hand dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 1982; 8:59-63.

Clayton GD & Clayton FE: Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Volume 2C, Toxicology, 4th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1994, pp 2157-2173.

Conway K, Wang XW, & Xu LS: Effect of magnesium on nickel-induced genotoxixity and cell transformation. Carcinogenesis 1987; 8:1115-1121.

Corazza M & Virgili A: Allergic contact dermatitis due to nickel in a neoprene wetsuit (letter). Contact Derm 1998; 39:257-273.

Costa M: Molecular targets of nickel and chromium in human and experimental systems. Scand J Work Environ Health 1993; 19(Suppl 1):71-74.

DFG: List of MAK and BAT Values 2002, Report No. 38, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazards of Chemical Compounds in the Work Area, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany, 2002.

Danadevi K, Rozati R, & Banu BS: In vivo genotoxic effect of nickel chloride in mice leukocytes using comet assay. Food Chem Toxicol 2004; 42:751-757.

Danese P & Bertazzoni MG: Lymphomatoid contact dermatitis due to nickel. Contact Derm 1995; 33:268.

De Silva BD & Doherty VR: Nickel allergy from orthodontic appliances. Contact Derm 2000; 42:102-103.

Denays R, Kumba C, Lison D, et al: First epileptic seizure induced by occupational nickel poisoning. Epilepsia 2005; 46:961-962.

Dostal LA, Hopfer SM, & Lin S: Effects of nickel chloride on lactating rats and their suckling pups and the transfer of nickel through rat milk. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1989; 101:220-231.

Dragun J: The Soil Chemistry of Hazardous Materials, Hazardous Materials Control Research Institute, Silver Spring, MD, 1988.

Dunnick JK, Elwell MR, & Radovsky AE: Comparative carcinogenic effects of nickel subsulfide, nickel oxide, or nickel sulfate hexahydrate chronic exposures in the lung. Cancer Res 1995; 55:5251-5256.

EPA: Search results for Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Inventory Chemicals. US Environmental Protection Agency, Substance Registry System, U.S. EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.epa.gov/srs/.

ERG: Emergency Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial Phase of a Dangerous Goods/Hazardous Materials Incident, U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Washington, DC, 2004.

Elsner P & Burg G: Irritant reactivity is a better risk marker for nickel sensitization than atopy. ACTA Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1993; 73:214-216.

Errera JJ: Nickel. J Am Med Technol 1980; 138.

Ewing S & Miller R: Generalized nickel dermatitis in a 6-year-old boy as a result of swallowing a Canadian nickel. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991; 25:855-856.

Ferm VH: Adv Teratol 1972; 5:51-75.

Fernandez-Redondo V, Gomez-Centeno P, & Toribio J: Chronic urticaria from a dental bridge (letter). Contact Derm 1998; 38:178-179.

Fletcher GG, Rossetto FE, & Turnbull JD: Toxicity, uptake, and mutagenicity of particulate and soluble nickel compounds. Environ Health Perspect 1994; 102(Suppl 3):69-79.

Freeman HM: Standard Handbook of Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal, 2nd ed, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1998.

Friberg L, Norberg GF, & Vouk V: Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals, 2nd ed, Elsevier Science Publishers, New York, NY, 1986.

Fullerton A & Menne T: In vitro and in vivo evaluation of the effect of barrier gels in nickel contact allergy. Contact Dermatitis 1995; 32:100-106.

Furst A & Fan AM: Carcinogenic action of nickel and cadmium powders in the same rat. Biol Tr Elem Res 1993; 36:243-249.

Galbreath KC, Crocker CR, Nyberg CM, et al: Nickel speciation measurements of urban particulate matter: method evaluation and relevance to risk assessment. J Environ Monit 2003; 5:56N-61N.

Gawkrodger DJ, Healy J, & Howe AM: The prevention of nickel contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 1995; 32:257-265.

Gennart JP, Baleux C, & Verellendumoulin C: Increased sister chromatid exchanges and tumor markers in workers exposed to elemental chromium-containing, cobalt-containing and nickel-containing dusts. Mutat Res 1993; 299:55-61.

Gollhausen R & Ring J: Allergy to coined money: nickel contact dermatitis in cashiers. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991; 25:365-369.

Goutet M, Ban M, & Binet S: Effects of nickel sulfate on pulmonary natural immunity in Wistar rats. Toxicology 2000; 145:15-26.

Grimsrud TK & Peto J: Persisting risk of nickel related lung cancer and nasal cancer among Clydach refiners. Occup Environ Med 2006; 63(5):365-366.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 1999; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2000; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2002; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2004; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Hallab N, Jacobs JJ, & Black J: Hypersensitivity to metallic biomaterials: a review of leukocyte migration inhibition assays. Biomaterials 2000; 21:1301-14.

Harkin A, Hynes MJ, Masterson E, et al: A toxicokinetic study of nickel-induced immunosuppression in rats. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2003; 25:655-670.

Hartwig A, Schlepegrell R, & Dally H: Interaction of carcinogenic metal compounds with deoxyribonucleic acid repair processes. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1996; 26:31-38.

Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 4th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1996.

Haudrechy P, Foussereau J, & Mantout B: Nickel release from nickel-plated metals and stainless steels. Contact Dermatitis 1994; 31:249-255.

Hauptman O, Albert DM, & Plowman MC: Ocular malformations of xenopus-laevis exposed to nickel during embryogenesis. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1993; 23:397-406.

Hindsen M, Bruze M, & Christensen OB: Individual variation in nickel patch test reactivity. Am J Contact Dermat 1999; 10(2):62-67.

Hindsen M, Christensen OB, & Moller H: Nickel levels in serum and urine in five different groups of eczema patients following oral ingestion of nickel. ACTA Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1994; 74:176-178.

Hoang TC, Tomasso JR, & Klaine SJ: Influence of water quality and age on nickel toxicity to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). Environ Toxicol Chem 2004; 23(1):86-92.

Hoey MJ: J Reprod Fertil 1966; 12:461-471.

Hong YC, Paik SR, & Lee HJ: Magnesium inhibits nickel-induced genotoxicity and formation of reactive oxygen. Environ Health Perspect 1997; 105:744-748.

IARC & 2001: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans. Nickel and Nickel Compounds. <http://193.51.164.11/htdocs/Monographs/Vol49/Nickel, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2001.

IARC : Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans -- Nickel. International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. 1997. Available from URL: http://193.51.164.11/default.html.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: 1,3-Butadiene, Ethylene Oxide and Vinyl Halides (Vinyl Fluoride, Vinyl Chloride and Vinyl Bromide), 97, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2008.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol and 1-tert-Butoxypropan-2-ol, 88, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2006.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Household Use of Solid Fuels and High-temperature Frying, 95, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010a.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Smokeless Tobacco and Some Tobacco-specific N-Nitrosamines, 89, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2007.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some Non-heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Some Related Exposures, 92, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010.

IARC: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans -- Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity: An Updating of IARC Monographs Volumes 1 to 42, Supplement 7, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1987.

IARC: List of all agents, mixtures and exposures evaluated to date - IARC Monographs: Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity to Humans, Volumes 1-88, 1972-PRESENT. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon, FranceAvailable from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/monoeval/crthall.html. As accessed Oct 07, 2004.

ICAO: Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air, 2003-2004. International Civil Aviation Organization, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2002.

ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 4th ed. JM Stellman (Ed), Vol 1-4, 1-4, International Labour Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1998.

ILO: Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 3rd ed., Vols 1 & 2, International Labour Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1983.

ITI: Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual, The International Technical Information Institute, Tokyo, Japan, 1995.

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: list of classifications, volumes 1-116. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Lyon, France. 2016. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/latest_classif.php. As accessed 2016-08-24.

International Agency for Research on Cancer: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. 2015. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/. As accessed 2015-08-06.

Kanerva L, Alanko K, & Jolanki R: Laboratory assistant's occupational allergic airborne contact dermatitis from nickel presenting as rosacea. Eur J Dermatol 1999; 9:397-398.

Kang J, Zhang Y, & Chen J: Nickel-induced histone hypoacetylation: the role of reactive oxygen species. Toxicol Sci 2003; 74:279-286.

Kargacin B, Klein CB, & Costa M: Mutagenic responses of nickel oxides and nickel sulfides in Chinese hamster V79 cell lines at the xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase locus. Mutat Res 1993; 300:63-72.

Kasprzak KS, Diwan BA, & Rice JM: Iron accelerates while magnesium inhibits nickel-induced carcinogenesis in the rat kidney. Toxicology 1994; 90:129-140.

Katsifis SP, Kinney PL, & Hosselet S: Interaction of nickel with mutagens in the induction of sister chromatid exchanges in human lymphocytes. Mutat Research 1996; 359:7-15.

Klein CB, Kargacin B, & Su L: Metal mutagenesis in transgenic Chinese hamster cell lines. Environ Health Perspect 1994; 102(Suppl 3):63-67.

Krushell JS & Burnett JW: Nickel dermatitis. Cutis 1990; 45:87-88.

Kunimasa K, Arita M, Tachibana H, et al: Chemical pneumonitis and acute lung injury caused by inhalation of nickel fumes. Internal Med 2011; 50(18):2035-2038.

Lacroix J, Morin CL, & Collins PP: Nickel dermatitis from a foreign body in the stomach. J Pediatr 1979; 95:428-429.

Lee YW, Pons C, & Tummolo DM: Mutagenicity of soluble and insoluble nickel compounds at the gpt locus in G12 chinese hamster cells. Environ Mol Mutagen 1993; 21:365-371.

Lee-Chen SF, Wang MC, & Yu CT: Nickel chloride inhibits the DNA repair of UV-treated but not methyl methanesulfonate-treated Chinese hamster ovary cells. Biol Trace Elem Res 1993; 37:39-50.

Lewis CG & Sunderman FW: Metal carcinogenesis in total joint arthroplasty. Clin Orthopaedics Related Res 1996; 329:S264-S268.

Lewis RA: Lewis' Dictionary of Toxicology, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1998.

Lewis RJ: Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 13th ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, NY, 1997.

Lewis RJ: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 10th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2000.

Lindsten R & Kurol J: Orthodontic appliances in relation to nickel hypersensitivity. J Orofac Orthoped 1997; 58:100-108.

Lu CC: Teratology 1979; 19:137-142.

Lyell A & Bain NH: Nickel allergy and valve replacement. Lancet 1974; 1:408-409.

Maridet C, Atge B, Amici JM, et al: The electronic cigarette: the new source of nickel contact allergy of the 21st century?. Contact Dermatitis 2015; 73(1):49-50.

McConnell LH, Fink JN, & Schlueter DP: Asthma caused by nickel sensitivity. Ann Intern Med 1973; 78:888.

McLelland J & Lawrence CM: Premenstrual exacerbation of nickel allergy. Br J Dermatol 1991; 125:83.

Menne T & Kaaber K: Treatment of pompholyx due to nickel allergy with chelating agents. Contact Dermatitis 1978; 4:289-290.

Menne T: Prevention of nickel allergy by regulation of specific exposures. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1996; 26:133-138.

Morgan LG & Usher V: Health problems associated with nickel refining and use. Ann Occup Hyg 1994; 38:189-198.

Moulin JJ, Clavel T, & Roy D: Risk of lung cancer in workers producing stainless steel and metallic alloys. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 2000; 73:171-180.

Muir DCF, Jadon N, & Julian JA: Cancer of the respiratory tract in nickel sinter plant workers -- effect of removal from sinter plant exposure. Occup Environ Med 1994; 51:19-22.

NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 12th ed, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1997.

NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 13th ed., National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

NIOSH : Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires January/31/2002; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 1, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 2, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2002.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 3, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2003.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 4, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2004.

Nadeenko VG: Gig Sanit 1979; 6:86-88.

Nakamura M, Arima Y, & Nobuhara S: Nickel allergy in a trumpet player (letter). Contact Derm 1999; 40:219-220.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Butylene Oxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648083cdbb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Dibromoethane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802796db&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 2-Ethylhexyl Chloroformate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037904e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Acrylonitrile (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648028e6a3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Adamsite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Agent BZ (3-quinuclidinyl benzilate) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ad507&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Allyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039d9ee&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Arsenic Trioxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480220305&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Automotive Gasoline Unleaded (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cc17&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Biphenyl (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1b7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bis-Chloromethyl Ether (BCME) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648022db11&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Boron Tribromide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae1d3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromine Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039732a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromoacetone (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187bf&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Calcium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae328&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Sulfide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037ff26&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Chlorobenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803a52bb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Cyanogen (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187fe&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Dimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbf3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Diphenylchloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091884e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Phosphorodichloridate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480920347&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809203e7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Germane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963906&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Hexafluoropropylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1f5&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ketene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ee7c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Malathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809639df&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Mercury Vapor (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a087&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Isothiocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a03&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a57&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802a4985&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methylchlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5f4&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c646&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN1 CAS Reg. No. 538-07-8) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN2 CAS Reg. No. 51-75-2) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN3 CAS Reg. No. 555-77-1) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Tetroxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091855b&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Trifluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008o. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e32&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perchloryl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e268&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perfluoroisobutylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008p. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dd58&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020cc0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phorate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008q. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dcc8&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene (Draft-Revised). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a08a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene Oxime (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26d&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Propargyl Alcohol (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec91&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Selenium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec55&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Silane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d523&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Strontium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sulfuryl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec7a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tear Gas (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008s. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e551&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tellurium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e2a1&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tert-Octyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008r. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5c7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tetramethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-17.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7d608&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethylacetyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008t. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5cc&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Zinc Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for n-Butyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064808f9591&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute: Expert panel report 3: guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute. Bethesda, MD. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.pdf.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, 2007.

National Research Council : Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 5, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2007.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 6, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2008.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 7, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2009.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 8, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2010.

O'Brien P & Salacinski HJ: Evidence for a relationship between the generation of reactive intermediates and the physicochemical characteristics of nickel oxides. Arch Toxicol 1996; 70:787-800.

OHM/TADS: Oil and Hazardous Materials/Technical Assistance Data System. US Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC (Internet Version). Edition expires 2002; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Ojajarvi IA, Partanen TJ, & Ahlbom A: Occupational exposure and pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2000; 57:316-24.

Pandey R, Kumar R, & Singh SP: Male reproductive effect of nickel sulphate in mice. Biometals 1999; 12:339-346.

Pang D, Burges DCL, & Sorahan T: Mortality study of nickel platers with special reference to cancers of the stomach and lung, 1945-93. Occup Environ Med 1996; 53:714-717.

Patierno SR, Dirscherl LA, & Xu J: Transformation of rat tracheal epithelial cells to immortal growth variants by particulate and soluble nickel compounds. Mutat Res 1993; 300:179-193.

Pazzaglia M, Lucente P, & Vincenzi C: Contact dermatitis from nickel in mobile phones (letter). Contact Derm 2000; 42:362-363.

Peters K, Gammelgaard B, & Menne T: Contact Dermatitis 1991; 25:237-241.

Peto B: J Natl Cancer Inst 1986; 77:841.

Pohanish RP & Greene SA: Rapid Guide to Chemical Incompatibilities, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1997.

RTECS : Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires January/31/2002; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Ridgway LP & Karnofsky DA: Ann Acad Sci 1952; 55:203-215.

Roberts RS, Julian JA, & Sweezey D: A study of mortality in workers engaged in the mining, smelting, and refining of nickel. Toxicol Ind Health 1989; 5:957-974.

Rodriguez RE, Misra M, & Diwan BA: Relative susceptibilities of C57BL/6, (C57BL/6 x C3H/He)F1, and C3H/He mice to acute toxicity and carcinogenicity of nickel subsulfide. Toxicology 1996; 107:131-140.

Ross IB, Warrington RJ, & Halliday WC: Cell-mediated allergy to a cerebral aneurysm clip: case report. Neurosurg 1998; 43:1209-1211.

Sahu RK, Katsifis SP, & Kinney PL: Ni(II) induced changes in cell cycle duration and sister-chromatid exchanges in cultured human lymphocytes. Mutat Res 1995; 327:217-225.

Santucci B, Cannistraci C, & Cristaudo A: Multiple sensitivities to transition metals -- the nickel palladium reactions. Contact Dermatitis 1996; 35:283-286.

Schardein JL: Chemically Induced Birth Defects, 3rd ed, Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York, NY, 2000.

Schroeder HA & Mitchener M: Arch Environ Health 1971; 23:102-106.

Schubert HJ: Airborne nickel dermatitis (letter). Contact Derm 2000; 42:118-119.

Seidenari S, Motolese A, & Belletti B: Pre-treatment of nickel test areas with sodium lauryl sulfate detects nickel sensitivity in subjects reacting negatively to routinely performed patch tests. Contact Dermatitis 1996; 34:88-92.

Senft V, Losan F, & Tucek M: Cytogenetic analysis of chromosomal aberrations of peripheral lymphocytes in workers occupationally exposed to nickel. Mutat Res 1992; 279:171-179.

Shen HM & Zhang QF: Risk assessment of nickel carcinogenicity and occupational lung cancer. Environ Health Perspect 1994; 102:275-282.

Shum KW, Meyer JD, Chen Y, et al: Occupational contact dermatitis to nickel: experience of the British dermatologists (EPIDERM) and occupational physicians (OPRA) surveillance schemes. Occup Environ Med 2003; 60:954-957.

Sittig M: Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens, 3rd ed, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1991.

Smith MK, George EL, & Stober JA: Perinatal toxicity associated with nickel chloride exposure. Environ Res 1993; 61:200-211.

Snow ET, Xu LS, & Kinney PL: Effects of nickel ions on polymerase activity and fidelity during DNA replication in vitro. Chem Biol Interact 1993; 88:155-173.

Sorokin VA, Valeev VA, & Gladchenko GO: Interaction of bivalent copper, nickel, manganese ions with native DNA and its monomers. J Inorg Biochem 1996; 63:79-98.

Strauss FG & Eggleston DW: IgA nephropathy associated with dental nickel alloy sensitization. Am J Nephrol 1985; 5:395-397.

Stridsklev IC, Hemmingsen B, & Karlsen JT: Biologic monitoring of chromium and nickel among stainless steel welders using the manual metal arc method. Internat Arch Occup Environ Health 1993; 65:209-219.

Sunderman FW Jr, Dingle B, & Hopfer SM: Acute nickel toxicity in electroplating workers who accidentally ingested a solution of nickel sulfate and nickel chloride. Am J Ind Med 1988; 14:257-266.

Sunderman FW Jr: Potential toxicity from nickel contamination of intravenous fluids. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1983; 13:1-4.

Sunderman FW: Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1977; 41:205.

Sunderman FW: Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1978; 43:381-390.

Tkeshelashvili LK, Reid TM, & McBride TJ: Nickel induces a signature mutation for oxygen free radical damage. Cancer Res 1993; 53:4172-4174.

Torjussen W, Solberg LA, & Hogetveit AC: Histopathologic changes of nasal mucosa in nickel workers. Cancer 1979; 44:963-974.

Trombelli L, Virgili A, & Corazza M: Systemic contact dermatitis from an orthodontic appliance. Contact Dermatitis 1992; 27:259-260.

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management: Protective Action Criteria (PAC) with AEGLs, ERPGs, & TEELs: Rev. 26 for chemicals of concern. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.hss.doe.gov/HealthSafety/WSHP/Chem_Safety/teel.html. As accessed 2011-06-27.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project : 11th Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/INDEXA5E1.HTM?objectid=32BA9724-F1F6-975E-7FCE50709CB4C932. As accessed 2011-06-27.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Discarded commercial chemical products, off-specification species, container residues, and spill residues thereof. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities 2010b; 40CFR(261.33, e-f):77-.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2011. Available from URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/index.cfm?fuseaction=iris.showSubstanceList&list_type=date. As accessed 2011-06-21.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of Radionuclides. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010a. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: The list of extremely hazardous substances and their threshold planning quantities (CAS Number Order). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010c. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-part355.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Part 1910 - Occupational safety and health standards (continued) Occupational Safety, and Health Administration's (OSHA) list of highly hazardous chemicals, toxics and reactives. Subpart Z - toxic and hazardous substances. CFR 2010 2010; Vol6(SEC1910):7-.

U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA): Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals. 29 CFR 2010 2010; 29(1910.119):348-.

US DHHS: US DHHS, Seventh Annual Report on Carcinogens -- 1994, National Toxicology Program, Washington, DC, 1994.

United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Vinyl Acetate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6af&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

Urben PG: Bretherick's Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards, Vol 1-2, 6th ed, (CD-ROM version), Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England, 1999.

Uter W, Fuchs T, & Hausser M: Patch test results with serial dilutions of nickel sulfate (with and without detergent), palladium chloride, and nickel and palladium metal plates. Contact Dermatitis 1995; 32:135-142.

Vanhoogstraten IMW, Boos C, & Boden D: Oral induction of tolerance to nickel sensitization in mice. J Invest Dermatol 1993; 101:26-31.

Veien NK, Hattel T, & Laurberg G: Low nickel diet -- an open, prospective trial. J Am Acad Dermatol 1993; 29:1002-1007.

Vyskocil A, Senft V, & Viau C: Biochemical renal changes in workers exposed to soluble nickel compounds. Human Exp Toxicol 1994a; 13:257-261.

Vyskocil A, Viau C, & Cizkova M: Chronic nephrotoxicity of soluble nickel in rats. Human Exp Toxicol 1994b; 13:689-693.

Webster JD, Parker TF, & Alfrey AC: Acute nickel intoxication by dialysis. Ann Intern Med 1980; 92:631-633.

Wubs PL & Spruit D: Course of nickel contact dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 1979; 5:57-58.

Xie JM, Funakoshi T, & Shimada H: Effects of chelating agents on testicular toxicity in mice caused by acute exposure to nickel. Toxicology 1995; 103:147-155.

Zemba C, Romaguera C, & Vilaplana J: Allergic contact dermatitis from nickel in an eye pencil. Contact Dermatitis 1992; 27:116.

Zeromski J, Jezewska E, & Sikora J: The effect of nickel compounds on immunophenotype and natural killer cell function of normal human lymphocytes. Toxicology 1995; 97:39-48.

Zhuang Z, Huang X, & Costa M: Protein oxidation and amino acid-DNA crosslinking by nickel compounds in intact cultured cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1994; 126:319-325.

Zhuang ZX, Shen Y, & Shen HM: DNA strand breaks and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase activation induced by crystalline nickel subsulfide in MRC-5 lung fibroblast cells. Human Exp Toxicol 1996; 15:891-897.

FeedBack

NICKEL

Classification | Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents