IRON

Editor's Note: This material is not listed in the Emergency Response Guidebook. Based on the material's physical and chemical properties, toxicity, or chemical group, a guide has been assigned. For additional technical information, contact one of the emergency response telephone numbers listed under Public Safety Measures.

MOLECULAR FORMULA

FERRIC PYROPHOSPHATE CITRATE: Fe4(C6H4O7)3(H2P2O7)2(P2O7)
IRON: Fe
IRON SUCROSE: [Na2Fe5O8(OH).3H2O]n.m(C12H22O11)
SODIUM FERRIC GLUCONATE COMPLEX: [NaFe2O3(C6H11O7)(C12H22O11)5]n of approximately 200

ERG GUIDE NUMBER

171-SUBSTANCES (LOW TO MODERATE HAZARD)

SYNONYM REFERENCE

(AAR, 1998; Clayton & Clayton, 1994; HSDB , 1999; Lewis, 1996; RTECS , 1999)

USES/FORMS/SOURCES

USES

INDUSTRIAL/COMMERCIAL USES

Iron is primarily used in powder metallurgy and serves as a catalyst in chemical reactions (AAR, 1998).
Iron is a component of carbon steels, cast iron, high-speed steels, high-strength low-alloy steels, manganese alloy steels, and stainless steels (Ashford, 1994).
Steel is the most important alloy of iron. It contains 0.25-2% of carbon. Tensile strength increases with increase in carbon content (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).

Alloyed with carbon (C), manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and other elements, iron is used to form steel (Budavari, 1996; Sittig, 1991)

Wrought iron is almost pure iron (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).
Ignition of a mixture of iron and potassium perchlorate generates heat sufficient for metal welding (Urben, 1995).
Iron uses include magnets, dyes, pigments, abrasives, and polishing compounds such as jeweler's rouge (Harbison, 1998).
Iron is used to increase the density of fluids used in oil-well drilling (ILO, 1998).
HAND WARMER: Iron powder is used in hand warmers available worldwide, especially in Japan, Canada and the United States. The iron powder and other contents of the hand warmer (activated charcoal, salt and vermiculite) create an exothermic chemical reaction when exposed to air or moisture (Tam et al, 2008). One patient developed a "warm sensation" in her mouth and epigastrium after ingesting a piece of a hand warmer (Hot Hands 2) containing 5 to 8 grams of elemental iron. Laboratory results revealed a serum iron concentration of 235 mcg/dL obtained 6 hours postingestion. Some heat warmers may contain up to 60 g of iron powder (Weiland & Sherrow, 2015).

BIOLOGICAL/ENVIRONMENTAL USES

Iron is essential to life. It is a constituent of biological pigments such as hemoglobin, cytochromes and ferrichromes (Lewis, 1998).
Iron is believed to be essential for normal growth and nutrition of all living cells, including microorganisms (Baselt & Cravey, 1995; Dragun, 1988; Lewis, 1997).
Iron, one of the ten trace elements, is required in the diet of higher animals, including humans, and is the most abundant trace metal in the human body (Schardein, 1993; Baselt & Cravey, 1995).

RECOMMENDED DAILY INTAKE: Adults require 10-20 mg of elemental iron daily. This amount is supplied through average diet (Baselt & Cravey, 1995). During pregnancy, the daily requirement increases to 30 mg (TERIS , 1999).

Injections of iron dextran (complex of ferric hydroxide and dextran) are used to treat iron deficiency anemia in humans and piglets (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).
Iron isotopes 55Fe and 59Fe are used in tracer studies (Budavari, 1996).

55Fe is used as a biological tracer (Budavari, 1996). Its half-life is 2.91 years (Lewis, 1997).
59Fe (half-life 46.3 days) emits beta and gamma radiation. It is used in medicine and as a tracer element in biochemical and metallurgical research (Lewis, 1997).

Iron participates in cellular oxidative processes (Lewis, 1997). Iron ions are involved in various biological processes, such as oxygen transport, electron transport, and nitrogen fixation (Budavari, 1996; Zenz, 1994).
The body burden of a human, weighing 70 kg, is about 4.1 g (ranges 3-5 g) (Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Zenz, 1994).

Iron is a constituent of hemoglobin (Lewis, 1997). Hemoglobin contains about 67% of the body iron (Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Zenz, 1994).
About 27% (ranges 20-30%) of the body iron is stored in the liver as ferritin (physiological) or hemosiderin (pathological conditions) (Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Zenz, 1994).

Iron is essential for proper functioning of myoglobin, heme-containing enzymes, and metalloflavoprotein enzymes (Harbison, 1998).
Iron tablets, used to orally treat iron deficiency, contain soluble iron salts and are potentially toxic. Ingestion of 0.5 g of iron may result in vomiting, ulceration of the gastrointestinal mucosa, intestinal bleeding, and possibly liver and kidney damage (Zenz, 1994).

FORMS

INDUSTRIAL FORMS

Powdered iron is a gray lustrous substance (AAR, 1998; (HSDB , 1999).
Iron is a silver-white metal (Lewis, 1997; Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Lewis, 1996; HSDB , 1999).
Also available as crystals, whiskers, and iron sponge (Lewis, 1997).
Common valences are 2 and 3 (Budavari, 1996) Lewis, 1997), seldom 1, 4, 6 (Budavari, 1996; HSDB , 1999).
Four naturally occurring isotopes (Lewis, 1997; Budavari, 1996; HSDB , 1999):
- 54 (5.82%)
- 56 (91.66%)
- 57 (2.19%)
- 58 (0.33%)
Four artificial, radioactive isotopes (Lewis, 1997; Budavari, 1996):
- 52
- 53
- 55
- 59-61
Although iron occurs in pure form, it is more commonly found as oxide or carbonate (Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Lewis, 1998), or as sulfide or silicate (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).
Iron carbonyl (iron pentacarbonyl) equals 2.58% iron.

SOURCES

Important source ores (Budavari, 1996; Harbison, 1998; HSDB , 1999; ILO, 1998; Lewis, 1997; Zenz, 1994):

hematite (Fe2O3)
magnetite (Fe3O4)
limonite ((FeO(OH)-nH2O)
siderite (FeCO3) (also taconite (Lewis, 1997))

Derivatives obtained during iron production include aniline, copper, ferric chloride, ferroboron, ferrocene, ferrosilicon, ferrous chloride, ferrovanadium and iron pentacarbonyl (Ashford, 1994).
INDUSTRIAL SOURCES

Powdered iron can be produced via:

Arc furnace reduction of ilmenite with metallurgic coke (Ashford, 1994).
Thermal decomposition of the yellow liquid iron pentacarbonyl Fe(CO)5 at 250 degrees C (Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Lewis, 1997), yielding dark-gray powder (Lewis, 1996).
Filter purification and vacuum crystallization of ferrous chloride solution (obtained from ore or scrap treatment with hydrochloric acid), followed by dehydration and reduction of ferrous chloride dehydrate powder at 800 degrees C (Lewis, 1997), yielding gray-black powder (Lewis, 1996).
Hydrogen-reduction of high-purity ferric oxide or oxalate (Lewis, 1997), yielding gray-black powder (Lewis, 1996).
Electrolytic deposition from solutions of a ferrous salt (Lewis, 1997), yielding lusterless, gray-black powder (Lewis, 1996).

Molten (or pig) iron can be produced via:

Blast furnace smelting of iron ore, metallurgic coke, and limestone (Ashford, 1994; Lewis, 1997).
In the U.S.: mainly from taconite (crude, low-grade iron ore, containing primarily hematite and silica) (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).
Continuous reduction of preheated iron ore and limestone in fluidized bed, heating to 926 degrees C, melting at 1926 degrees C, reduction of iron in the presence of coal at 1648 degrees C (Lewis, 1997).

DIETARY SOURCES

The required daily amount of iron of 10-20 mg for adults is supplied through average diet (Baselt & Cravey, 1995).
The average daily intake for adults is 15 mg (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).
In the United States, supplemental iron is contained in flour, some breakfast cereals and vitamin preparations (Baselt & Cravey, 1995).
EPA set the Federal Drinking Water Guidelines for iron at 300 mcg/L (HSDB , 1999).

ENVIRONMENTAL SOURCES

Iron is found in 5.1% of the earth's crust. It is the second most abundant metal (Budavari, 1996) and the fourth most abundant element (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).
The content in the earth's crust is 50,000 ppm (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).
It is believed that the earth's core consist mainly of iron (Budavari, 1996).
Native iron, found in Greenland, exists as small grains or nodules in basalt (HSDB , 1999).

SYNONYM EXPLANATION

For information regarding CARBONYL IRON or IRON DEXTRAN please see individual managements.

-CLINICAL EFFECTS

GENERAL CLINICAL EFFECTS

USES: Found primarily as a nutritional supplement in vitamins. Used for the treatment and prevention of iron-deficiency anemia.

PHARMACOLOGY: Iron is required in the function of multiple essential protein and enzyme complexes including hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochromes.

TOXICOLOGY: Iron is a general cellular poison and is directly corrosive to the GI mucosa.

EPIDEMIOLOGY: Historically, a common poisoning which was one of the leading causes of pediatric toxicologic deaths. Exposure has been reduced in recent years with improved packaging, but still has the potential for significant morbidity and mortality.

WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE

MILD TO MODERATE POISONING: Vomiting and diarrhea may occur within 6 hours of ingestion.
SEVERE POISONING: Severe vomiting and diarrhea, lethargy, metabolic acidosis, shock, GI hemorrhage, coma, seizures, hepatotoxicity, and late onset GI strictures.
CLINICAL COURSE (May Not Occur In All Cases) includes the following:

PHASE I (0.5 to 2 hours) includes vomiting, hematemesis, abdominal pain, diarrhea, hematochezia, lethargy, shock, acidosis, and coagulopathy. Necrosis to the GI tract occurs from the direct effect of iron on GI mucosa. Severe gastrointestinal hemorrhagic necrosis with large losses of fluid and blood contribute to shock.
PHASE II includes apparent recovery; continue to observe patient closely.
PHASE III (2 to 12 hours after phase I) includes profound shock, severe acidosis, cyanosis, and fever. Increased total peripheral resistance, decreased plasma volume, hemoconcentration, decrease in total blood volume, hypotension, CNS depression, and metabolic acidosis have been demonstrated.
PHASE IV (2 to 4 days) includes possible hepatotoxicity. Thought to be a direct action of iron on mitochondria. Monitor liver function tests and bilirubin. Acute lung injury may also occur.
Phase V (days to weeks) includes GI scarring and strictures. GI obstruction secondary to gastric or pyloric scarring may occur due to corrosive effects of iron. Sustained-release preparations have resulted in small intestinal necrosis with resultant scarring and obstruction.

Carbonyl iron (also referred to as "iron carbonyl") appears to be less toxic than other iron formulations because of limited absorption. Please refer to the CARBONYL IRON management for further information.
Case reports suggest that iron-dextran complex overdoses may be associated with high serum iron concentrations without evidence of a corresponding degree of clinical symptoms and signs of toxicity. Please refer to the IRON DEXTRAN management for further information.

WITH THERAPEUTIC USE

ADVERSE EFFECTS: GI upset, constipation.

POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)

Inhalation of material may be harmful.
Contact may cause burns to skin and eyes.
Inhalation of Asbestos dust may have a damaging effect on the lungs.
Fire may produce irritating, corrosive and/or toxic gases.
Some liquids produce vapors that may cause dizziness or suffocation.
Runoff from fire control may cause pollution.

ACUTE CLINICAL EFFECTS

SUMMARY

PHARMACOLOGY: Iron is required in the function of multiple essential protein and enzyme complexes including hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochromes.
TOXICOLOGY: Iron is a general cellular poison and is directly corrosive to the GI mucosa.
EPIDEMIOLOGY: Historically, a common poisoning which was one of the leading causes of pediatric toxicologic deaths. Exposure has been reduced in recent years with improved packaging, but still has the potential for significant morbidity and mortality.
ADVERSE EFFECTS

GI upset, constipation.

OVERDOSE

MILD TO MODERATE POISONING: Vomiting and diarrhea may occur within 6 hours of ingestion.
SEVERE POISONING: Severe vomiting and diarrhea, lethargy, metabolic acidosis, shock, GI hemorrhage, coma, seizures, hepatotoxicity, and late onset GI strictures.
CLINICAL COURSE (May Not Occur In All Cases) includes the following:

PHASE I (0.5 to 2 hours) includes vomiting, hematemesis, abdominal pain, diarrhea, hematochezia, lethargy, shock, acidosis, and coagulopathy. Necrosis to the GI tract occurs from the direct effect of iron on GI mucosa. Severe gastrointestinal hemorrhagic necrosis with large losses of fluid and blood contribute to shock.
PHASE II includes apparent recovery; continue to observe patient closely.
PHASE III (2 to 12 hours after phase I) includes profound shock, severe acidosis, cyanosis, and fever. Increased total peripheral resistance, decreased plasma volume, hemoconcentration, decrease in total blood volume, hypotension, CNS depression, and metabolic acidosis have been demonstrated.
PHASE IV (2 to 4 days) includes possible hepatotoxicity. Thought to be a direct action of iron on mitochondria. Monitor liver function tests and bilirubin. Acute lung injury may also occur.
Phase V (days to weeks) includes GI scarring and strictures. GI obstruction secondary to gastric or pyloric scarring may occur due to corrosive effects of iron. Sustained-release preparations have resulted in small intestinal necrosis with resultant scarring and obstruction.

Carbonyl iron (also referred to as "iron carbonyl") appears to be less toxic than other iron formulations because of limited absorption. Please refer to the CARBONYL IRON management for further information.
Case reports suggest that iron-dextran complex overdoses may be associated with high serum iron concentrations without evidence of a corresponding degree of clinical symptoms and signs of toxicity. Please refer to the IRON DEXTRAN management for further information.

ACID-BASE

ACIDOSIS: Anion gap metabolic acidosis is a common early finding in significant ingestions (Carlsson et al, 2008; Schonfeld & Haftel, 1989; Wu et al, 1998). Severe metabolic acidosis may persist for days in severe overdoses.

CASE SERIES: Sixteen cases of ferric chloride poisoning between the years of 1990-2001 were analyzed, and metabolic acidosis was reported in 25% of patients (Wu et al, 2003).

CARDIOVASCULAR

HYPOTENSION: Hypotension may develop 2 to 6 hours after severe poisoning secondary to vomiting, diarrhea, blood loss or vasodilation.

CASE SERIES: Sixteen cases of ferric chloride poisoning between the years of 1990-2001 were analyzed, and hypotension was reported in 12.5% of patients (Wu et al, 2003).

HEART FAILURE: Cardiac failure has been reported on the second day following severe acute iron poisoning (Tenenbein & Israels, 1988). Iron-mediated lipid peroxidation of myocyte organelle membranes (Watts, 1999) and impairment of cardiac mitochondrial respiratory enzyme activity (Link, 1998) are the proposed mechanism. Cardiac toxicity is a well-known complication of chronic iron overload.

DERMATOLOGIC

THERMAL BURN: Severe thermal burn with ferrous sulfate slurry has caused classical symptoms of ingested iron poisoning (Chang et al, 1988).

ENDOCRINE

HYPOGLYCEMIA: Hypoglycemia secondary to hepatic failure may be seen late (2 to 4 days) in severe overdoses.
HYPERGLYCEMIA: Serum glucose concentration greater than 150 mg/dL has been reported (Lacouture et al, 1981; Mann et al, 1989).

GASTROINTESTINAL

Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea may develop following an overdose (Carlsson et al, 2008; Wu et al, 2003).
Hemorrhage, ulceration and necrosis of the esophagus, stomach, and bowel are common autopsy findings in fatal iron overdoses. Gastrointestinal hemorrhage may be seen in the first few hours after ingestion.

HEENT

Iron particles as foreign bodies in the cornea or sclera principally have local effects; whereas, if they are in the posterior part of the globe, in the vitreous humor, or in the vicinity of the lens, the effect may be widespread and serious (Grant & Schuman, 1993).

HEMATOLOGIC

COAGULOPATHY: Early coagulopathy (4 to 8 hours postingestion) has been reported rarely and may be due to interference with enzymes of the coagulation cascade by free iron (Tenenbein & Israels, 1988). It is related to plasma concentrations of ferric iron.

Late coagulopathy (24 hours or more postingestion) is associated with severe hepatotoxicity and decreased levels of factors V, VII, IX, X, and fibrinogen (Tenenbein & Israels, 1988).

HEMOCHROMATOSIS: Hemochromatosis may rarely occur after chronic ingestion of excessive iron (Green et al, 1989). Patients receiving parenteral iron therapy may be at more risk to develop iron overload because the intestinal regulatory mechanisms are bypassed (Burns & Pomposelli, 1999).
LEUKOCYTOSIS: Leukocyte counts greater than 15,000/mm(3) have been reported following iron poisoning, but is nonspecific (Lacouture et al, 1981; Mann et al, 1989).

HEPATIC

HEPATOTOXICITY: BACKGROUND: Hepatotoxicity leading to death can occur following acute iron poisoning. Based on a review of the literature, patients developed hepatotoxicity within 24 to 48 hours and effects appear to be dose related. The primary site of hepatic injury is the periportal areas of the hepatic lobule (the principal site for hepatic regeneration), which may explain the increase in mortality and poorer prognosis. Rapid onset and periportal injury were also consistently reported in animal studies due to iron poisoning (Tenenbein, 2001).

MECHANISM: Iron-induced hepatotoxicity is a presumed result of free radical generation and lipid peroxidation. Iron catalyzes hydroxyl radical formation (the most potent-free radical), which initiates lipid peroxidation. Based on limited data, antioxidants may have a hepatoprotective role in iron poisoning. Further research is suggested to establish efficacy (Tenenbein, 2001).
INCIDENCE: Periportal hepatic necrosis is described in fatal cases, although it occurs rarely (McGuigan, 1996). Significant elevations of AST, ALT, LDH, and bilirubin occur 1 to 4 days postingestion in severe cases (Gleason, 1979; Comes et al, 1993).
DOSE-DEPENDENT RELATIONSHIP: Robertson & Tenenbein (2005) looked at 73 cases of iron poisoning to determine if hepatotoxicity due to iron poisoning is a dose-related effect. Sixty patients had no signs of hepatotoxicity, 4 patients developed mild hepatotoxicity, and 9 patients developed severe hepatotoxicity (transaminase greater than 1000 Units/L). The serum iron levels of only 3 patients with severe hepatotoxicity were obtained early and prior to deferoxamine therapy. The values ranged from 1821 to 20,900 mcg/dL. The authors concluded that clinically significant hepatotoxicity is not likely to occur with serum iron levels less than 700 mcg/dL (Robertson & Tenenbein, 2005).

IMMUNOLOGIC

ANAPHYLACTOID REACTIONS: Reports of anaphylactoid reactions have occurred with therapeutic administration of parenteral iron. In one study, doses of 500 mg or more were associated with severe reactions (Burns & Pomposelli, 1999).

NEUROLOGIC

Lethargy, restlessness and/or confusion have been noted (30 minutes to 2 hours) (Carlsson et al, 2008; Chyka & Butler, 1993).
Seizures and coma may be seen in Phase III or IV (2 hours to 4 days) (Chyka & Butler, 1993).

RESPIRATORY

ACUTE LUNG INJURY: Acute lung injury may develop in severe iron intoxication 12 hours to several days after ingestion. Use of high doses of deferoxamine for longer than 24 hours may contribute to the development of acute lung injury (Tenenbein et al, 1988).
PULMONARY ASPIRATION: CASE SERIES: Sixteen cases of ferric chloride poisoning between the years of 1990-2001 were analyzed, and aspiration pneumonia was reported in 18.8% of patients (Wu et al, 2003).
PNEUMOCONIOSIS: Inhaling dust containing iron oxide can lead to pneumoconiosis, but no definitive conclusions as to its role in lung cancer. Based on animal data, iron oxide dust is suspected as a "co-carcinogenic" substance (ILO, 1998). Although it is considered by IARC to be group 3.

Iron oxide particles or dust may be caught in the remaining iron oxide accumulates in lymphoid tissue along bronchi, around blood vessels, or at the bifurcation of bronchi(Harbison, 1998a).

CHRONIC CLINICAL EFFECTS

Chronic iron inhalation (as iron oxide) leads to accumulation in the lungs and a characteristic stippled appearance on X-rays. This condition, called SIDEROSIS, is considered benign in that it does not interfere with lung function and does not predispose to other disease.

Iron appears to be preferentially released from quartz particles in the lungs of patients with more severe fibrosis (Tourmann & Kaufmann, 1994). A similar release of iron was seen in the lungs of rats following pulmonary instillation of silica, together with increases in oxidant stress and decreased levels of antioxidants (Ghio et al, 1994). Iron may play a central role in development of fibrosis through some oxidative mechanism(s).

Clinical signs of iron overload appear when the total body iron is 5 to 10 times higher than normal (Lynch, 1995).

Neurobehavioral defects including decreased activity, habituation, reflex startle, and conditioned avoidance response performance, were seen in rats fed excess iron (20,000 ppm) in the diet for 12 weeks, but similar effects were also seen in iron-deficient animals. It is therefore likely that these behavioral effects are secondary to general toxicity (Sobotka et al, 1996).

Iron DEFICIENCY, measured as lower serum iron and transferrin levels, has been linked with major depression; decreased iron may be the result of immune-inflammatory response in depression (Maes et al, 1996).

Sodium ferrous citrate has been linked with photosensitivity (Kawada et al, 1996). Contact hypersensitivity to ferric and ferrous salts has been shown in patch testing (Hemmer et al, 1996).

High serum iron levels were associated with an increased risk of fatal acute myocardial infarction (MI) in a group of 9920 Canadian men and women. Persons with serum iron levels greater than or equal to 175 mcg/dL had double the risk for men, and over 5 times the risk for women of having a fatal MI (Morrison et al, 1994). It has been hypothesized that iron plays a role in atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease, because its incidence in women is only 30% to 50% of that in men, and women are typically iron-deficient. While at least 7 epidemiologic studies have found an association between iron and CHD, 18 have not. Most of the epidemiologic data since the original Finnish study have failed to find an association between increasing levels of serum ferritin and risk of heart attack (Meyers, 1996; Sempos et al, 1996).

-FIRST AID

FIRST AID AND PREHOSPITAL TREATMENT

ACTIVATED CHARCOAL

Activated charcoal is not useful. Most patients have spontaneous vomiting.

-MEDICAL TREATMENT

LIFE SUPPORT

Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

SUMMARY

FIRST AID - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)

Move victim to fresh air.
Call 911 or emergency medical service.
Give artificial respiration if victim is not breathing.
Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult.
Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes.
In case of contact with substance, immediately flush skin or eyes with running water for at least 20 minutes.
Ensure that medical personnel are aware of the material(s) involved, and take precautions to protect themselves.

FIRST AID

INHALATION EXPOSURE

INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
If bronchospasm and wheezing occur, consider treatment with inhaled sympathomimetic agents.

EYE EXPOSURE

DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.

ORAL EXPOSURE

Activated charcoal should not be used in the out-of-hospital management of iron ingestions (Manoguerra et al, 2005). Most patients have spontaneous vomiting.

-RANGE OF TOXICITY

MINIMUM LETHAL EXPOSURE

SUMMARY

Fatalities have occurred following pediatric ingestions of 1200 mg to 4500 mg of elemental iron.
Adult fatalities have been reported when only supportive care was provided or deferoxamine treatment was delayed.
Lethality may be modified by adequate supportive care and treatment. Of 17 pediatric cases reported prior to the use of deferoxamine, 8 (47%) resulted in death (Spencer, 1951; Forbes, 1947; Thomson, 1947; Thomson, 1950; Roxburgh, 1949).
For ferrous iron, the estimated lethal dose is 0.3 grams/kg body weight (Baselt, 2000).
Acute iron intoxication occurs more often in children than in adults, and is believed to be responsible for several hundred pediatric deaths annually (Baselt, 2000).
Fatal poisoning is accompanied with the following autopsy findings: hemorrhage and necrosis of gastrointestinal mucosa, degenerative changes in liver, and hemorrhagic bronchopneumonia (Baselt, 2000).
FATAL HEPATIC INJURY - The lowest serum iron level that was associated with hepatic injury was 1700 mcg/dL (304 mcmol/L) in a 17-year-old pregnant female who died of iron overdose-induced hepatic failure (Tenenbein, 2001).

CASE REPORTS

PEDIATRIC

In a series of 12 children who all received gastric lavage and deferoxamine, all survived (Whitten et al, 1965).
In a review of cases of children who developed severe iron intoxication, defined as coma or shock, definitive therapy (chelators, exchange transfusion) resulted in survival in 12 of 14 (86%), supportive care resulted in survival in 14 of 26 (54%), and no therapy resulted in survival in 0 of 10 (Whitten et al, 1965).
In another series of 28 children with shock or coma due to iron poisoning, 25 (89%) survived after deferoxamine therapy (Westlin, 1966).

TABLE of fatal PEDIATRIC iron ingestions

AGE (mo)	AMOUNT FERROUS SULFATE	AMOUNT ELEMENTAL IRON	TREATMENT	REF.
19	3 g (exsiccated)	900 mg	None	Spencer 1951
18	8.8 g (exsiccated)	2640 mg	Lavage	Spencer 1951
14	8 g (exsiccated)	2400 mg	None	Spencer 1951
16	5.2 g (exsiccated)	1560 mg	None	Thomson 1947
12	6 g to 7 g (exsiccated)	1800 mg to 1200 mg	Supportive	Forbes 1947
17	6 g	1200 mg	Methylene blue	Smith et al 1950
21	8.2 g (exsiccated)	2460 mg	Lavage	Smith 1952
26	9 g to 12 g	1800 mg to 2400 mg	Lavage	Duffy Diehl 1952
39	10 g (exsiccated)	3000 mg	None	Forbes 1947
20	10.2 g to 14.2 g	2040 mg to 2840 mg	Supportive	Clark et al 1954
12	12 g	2400 mg	Lavage	Haggerty 1960
16	22.5 g	4500 mg	Lavage	Charney 1961
18	16 g to 19.5 g	3200 mg to 3900 mg	EDTA Lavage deferoxamine	Gleason et al 1979

ADULT

TABLE of fatal ADULT iron ingestions

AGE (yr)	AMOUNT ELEMENTAL IRON	AMOUNT ELEMENTAL IRON/kg	TREATMENT	REF.
23	10 g	166 mg/kg	Supportive	Cernelc et al, 1968
*30	5 g	70 mg/kg	Deferox. (delayed 26 h)	Olenmark et al, 1987
UNK	2 g	UNK	Deferox. (delayed 27 h)	Lavender & Bell, 1970
UNK	10 g	UNK	Deferox. (delayed 72 h)	Henriksson et al, 1979
*UNK	5.4 g	UNK	Supportive	Strom et al, 1976
UNK	23 g	UNK	Supportive	Foucar et al, 1948
16	>/= 3 g	UNK	Supportive	Tenenbein et al, 1988
28	6.6 g	UNK	Deferox. (delayed 100 h)	Tenenbein et al, 1988
25	11.5 g**	230 mg/kg	Supportive	Wu et al, 1998
* = pregnant
** = ingestion of ferric chloride which was equivalent to 11.52 g or 230 mg/kg of elemental iron - deferoxamine not given secondary to rapid deterioration and late diagnosis
Deferox. = Deferoxamine

MAXIMUM TOLERATED EXPOSURE

Ingestion of less than 40 mg/kg generally does not cause significant toxicity, although mild GI irritation may develop (Manoguerra et al, 2005).

One case series found that hospital referral values as high as 61 mg/kg of iron do not adversely impact patient outcomes (Benson et al, 2003).

In one study, 27.6% of 380 children with an iron ingestion of 40 mg/kg to 60 mg/kg became symptomatic (Oderda et al, 1987).

In one series of 59 iron-poisoned children 15/20 with serum iron greater than 500 mcg/dL were symptomatic and were considered to be moderately or severely poisoned (James, 1970). In addition, another study found a significant correlation between serum iron levels above 500 mcg/dL and coma. Nine of 13 with serum iron less than 300 mcg/dL were mildly poisoned or asymptomatic (Chyka & Butler, 1993).

Of 22 patients with initial levels between 300 and 500 mcg/dL, 14 were moderately or severely poisoned and 8 were mildly poisoned or asymptomatic (James, 1970).

CASE REPORTS

HAND WARMERS: One patient developed a "warm sensation" in her mouth and epigastrium after ingesting a piece of a hand warmer (Hot Hands 2) containing 5 to 8 grams of elemental iron. Laboratory results revealed a serum iron concentration of 235 mcg/dL obtained 6 hours postingestion. Some heat warmers may contain up to 60 g of iron powder (Weiland & Sherrow, 2015).
HIGH-DOSE DEFEROXAMINE: A 22-year-old woman with an extremely high serum iron concentration (4573 mcg/dL) after ingesting 180 tablets of 300 mg ferrous sulfate (216 mg/kg elemental iron), received high-dose IV deferoxamine (15 mg/kg/hr started 8 hours after ingestion, increased to 30 mg/kg/hr 2 hours later, and then decreased to 15 mg/kg/hr 4 hours later). Despite severe gastrointestinal complications and metabolic acidosis, she rapidly recovered following supportive care and did not developed any adverse effects from high-dose deferoxamine (Noble et al, 2015).
An 18-year-old woman presented with persistent vomiting, abdominal pain, lethargy, altered mental status, tachycardia (124 beats/min), and severe anion gap metabolic acidosis (pH 7.16, PaO2 122 mmHg, PCO2 20 mmHg, bicarbonate 6.9 mmol/L, base excess -21.5 mmol/L) about 8 hours after ingesting 50 ferrous sulfate tablets (100 mg of elemental iron per 335 mg tablet; 100 mg/kg of elemental iron). Following supportive care, including gastric lavage, whole bowel irrigation, continuous renal replacement therapies, continuous venovenous hemodiafiltration, and deferoxamine therapy, her condition gradually improved. Her serum iron concentration decreased from 2150 to 160 mcg/dL (reference range: 40 to 150 mcg/dL) 24 hours after ingestion (Gumber et al, 2013).
PEDIATRIC: An 18-month-old boy (weight 11 kg) presented with diarrhea and vomiting after ingesting about 1625 mg (147 mg/kg) of ferrous sulfate. He later became drowsy, requiring intubation and ventilation. X-ray of the abdomen revealed 13 tablet fragments. Despite standard therapy (gastric lavage, whole bowel irrigation, and intravenous deferoxamine 15 mg/kg/hr, total at least 360 mg/kg in 24 hours), his serum iron concentration increased to 700 mcmol/L (3906 mcg/dL) 6 hours after ingestion. He developed elevated ALT (359 Units/L) and coagulopathy with kaolin partial thromboplastin time at 74.5 s and prothrombin time at 16.5 s, requiring vitamin K, fresh frozen plasma, and cryoprecipitate. Approximately 14 hours postingestion, he underwent continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH) for 17 hours and his serum iron concentration quickly decreased to 24.5 mcmol/L (137 mcg/dL). Despite signs of organ damage, he gradually recovered and was discharged on day 5 (Milne & Petros, 2010).
PEDIATRIC - An 18-month-old girl (12 kg) presented to the emergency department after the ingestion of 5300 mg of iron (442 mg/kg of elemental iron; serum iron concentration of 447 mcg/dL on admission). Despite standard therapy (gastric lavage, whole bowel irrigation, and intravenous deferoxamine) for 2 hours, her serum iron increased to 1362 mcg/dL (244 mcmol/L). Exchange transfusion 9 hours post-ingestion reduced serum iron to 134 mcg/dL (24 mcmol/L). Her serum iron level decreased further to 40 mcg/dL (7 mcmol/L) after plasmapheresis for 5 hours. She was extubated 18 hours after the exchange transfusion (Carlsson et al, 2008).
PEDIATRIC - A 7-week-old girl was brought to the hospital 4 hours after the maternal grandmother accidently gave the infant approximately 1.5 ounces (400 mg/kg of elemental iron) of ferrous sulfate suspension from a baby bottle thought to contain juice. The infant was lethargic and shortly after arrival developed metabolic acidosis (pH 7.22; PCO2 58 mm Hg) and shock. Initial serum iron level was 671 mcg/dL, and the level decreased to 194 mcg/dL and 46 mcg/dL following 6 and 20 hours of deferoxamine chelation therapy, respectively. Treatment was complicated by the immaturity of the infant, but a full recovery without sequelae was noted at a follow-up several months after the incident (Valentine et al, 2009).
ADULT - Iron ingestions of 20 mg/kg by 6 fasted adults resulted in nausea, malaise, and diarrhea in all subjects, with 4 requiring intravenous fluids (Burkhart et al, 1991).

Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS7439-89-6 :

ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): Not Listed ; Listed as: Iron salts, soluble, as Fe
EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): Not Listed
IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): Not Listed
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Not Listed ; Listed as: Iron salts (soluble, as Fe)
MAK (DFG, 2002): Not Listed
NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): Not Listed

TOXICITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT VALUES

EPA IRIS

EPA Risk Assessment Values for CAS7439-89-6 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011):

Not Listed

TOXICITY VALUES

References: Clayton & Clayton, 1994 Lewis, 1996 OHM/TADS, 1999 RTECS, 1999
- LD50- (ORAL)GUINEA_PIG:
- LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
- LDLo- (INTRAPERITONEAL)RABBIT:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)RAT:
- TDLo- (ORAL)HUMAN:
- TDLo- (INTRATRACHEAL)RAT:
- TDLo- (ORAL)RAT:

-STANDARDS AND LABELS

WORKPLACE STANDARDS

ACGIH TLV Values for CAS7439-89-6 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):

Editor's Note: The listed values are recommendations or guidelines developed by ACGIH(R) to assist in the control of health hazards. They should only be used, interpreted and applied by individuals trained in industrial hygiene. Before applying these values, it is imperative to read the introduction to each section in the current TLVs(R) and BEI(R) Book and become familiar with the constraints and limitations to their use. Always consult the Documentation of the TLVs(R) and BEIs(R) before applying these recommendations and guidelines.

Adopted Value

Iron salts, soluble, as Fe

TLV:

TLV-TWA: 1 mg/m(3)
TLV-STEL:
TLV-Ceiling:

Notations and Endnotes:

Carcinogenicity Category: Not Listed
Codes: Not Listed
Definitions: Not Listed

TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): URT and skin irr
Molecular Weight: Varies

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3):

[(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm:

[(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance

AIHA WEEL Values for CAS7439-89-6 (AIHA, 2006):

Not Listed

NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS7439-89-6 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):

Listed as: Iron salts (soluble, as Fe)
REL:

TWA: 1 mg/m(3)
STEL:
Ceiling:
Carcinogen Listing: (Not Listed) Not Listed
Skin Designation: Not Listed
Note(s):

IDLH: Not Listed

OSHA PEL Values for CAS7439-89-6 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):

Not Listed

OSHA List of Highly Hazardous Chemicals, Toxics, and Reactives for CAS7439-89-6 (U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2010):

Not Listed

ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS

EPA CERCLA, Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities for CAS7439-89-6 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Not Listed

EPA CERCLA, Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities, Radionuclides for CAS7439-89-6 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Not Listed

EPA RCRA Hazardous Waste Number for CAS7439-89-6 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010b):

Not Listed
Editor's Note: The D, F, and K series waste numbers and Appendix VIII to Part 261 -- Hazardous Constituents were not included. Please refer to 40 CFR Part 261.

EPA SARA Title III, Extremely Hazardous Substance List for CAS7439-89-6 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Not Listed

EPA SARA Title III, Community Right-to-Know for CAS7439-89-6 (40 CFR 372.65, 2006; 40 CFR 372.28, 2006):

Not Listed

DOT List of Marine Pollutants for CAS7439-89-6 (49 CFR 172.101 - App. B, 2005):

Not Listed

EPA TSCA Inventory for CAS7439-89-6 (EPA, 2005):

Listed as: Iron

SHIPPING REGULATIONS

SURFACE

DOT -- Table of Hazardous Materials and Special Provisions (49 CFR 172.101, 2005):

Not Listed

ICAO International Shipping Name (ICAO, 2002):

Not Listed

LABELS

NFPA

NFPA Hazard Ratings for CAS7439-89-6 (NFPA, 2002):

Not Listed

-HANDLING AND STORAGE

STORAGE

INCOMPATIBILITIES

Stable in dry air. Readily oxidizes in moist air, forming "rust" (HSDB , 1999).
For incompatibilities with other chemicals see "REACTIVITY HAZARD" in the "PHYSICAL HAZARD MANAGEMENT" section.

-PERSONAL PROTECTION

SUMMARY

RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)

Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
Structural firefighters' protective clothing will only provide limited protection.

Wear protective gloves, boots and goggles when handling this substance. If substance is on fire or involved in fire, do not breath in dusts and fumes (AAR, 1998).

Contaminated shoes and clothing should be removed and isolated at spill site (AAR, 1998).

Upon contact with eyes or skin, immediately flush with running water for at last 15 minutes (AAR, 1998).

Fittings for hydrogen peroxide handling systems should not contain iron (Urben, 1995)

Protective clothing should consist of goggles, leather gauntlets, dust or welding masks, steel-toed shoes as needed (Sittig, 1991).

EYE/FACE PROTECTION

If material contacts eyes or skin, immediately flush with running water for at last 15 minutes (AAR, 1998).

Dust or welding masks should be used (Sittig, 1991).

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

Refer to "Recommendations for respirator selection" in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards on TOMES Plus(R) for respirator information.

Depending on the air concentration, the following respiratory equipment (above 500 mg/m3 with full facepiece) is suggested (Sittig, 1991):

fume respirator high efficiency particulate filter respirator,
supplied-air respirator,
self-contained breathing apparatus (positive pressure mode),
powered air-purifying respirator with high efficiency particulate filter,
Type C supplied-air respirator (positive pressure mode),
Combination of Type C supplied-air respirator with full facepiece and auxiliary self-contained air supply (both in positive pressure mode).

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. Search results for CAS 7439-89-6.

Specific recommendations and test data for this chemical were not found in the available manufacturers' product literature. A complete list of consulted manufacturers and references is presented below.

ENGINEERING CONTROLS

Use local exhaust and general ventilation to control dust levels (HSDB , 1999).

-PHYSICAL HAZARDS

FIRE HAZARD

SUMMARY

Editor's Note: This material is not listed in the Emergency Response Guidebook. Based on the material's physical and chemical properties, toxicity, or chemical group, a guide has been assigned. For additional technical information, contact one of the emergency response telephone numbers listed under Public Safety Measures.
POTENTIAL FIRE OR EXPLOSION HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)
- Some may burn but none ignite readily.
- Containers may explode when heated.
- Some may be transported hot.
Powdered iron may undergo reaction with water, giving off the flammable gas hydrogen. The heat produced during this chemical reaction may be sufficiently high to ignite the hydrogen gas (AAR, 1998).
Stabilization of pyrophoric iron particles may be achieved through heat treatment with oxygen-containing gases in two stages, first at 25-45 degree C, then at 50-70 degree C (Urben, 1995).
Heating of oily iron dust in a collecting vessel under oxidative conditions resulted in vaporization of oil, ignition, and subsequent explosion (Urben, 1995).
Exceeding a critical specific surface area results in the development of pyrophoricity of finely divided metal powders. Underlying cause for this property seems to be high heat of oxide formation upon exposure to air. Relatively low concentration of oxygen and an inert gas allow for safe handling (Urben, 1995).
An explosion occurred when liquid chlorine was added to carbon disulfide in an iron cylinder, but not when glassware was used. The explosion was due to the iron-catalyzed chlorination of carbon disulfide to carbon tetrachloride (Urben, 1995).
Iron powder ignites on contact with polystyrene in the presence of friction or spark (Lewis, 1996).
Iron ignites in dry chlorine gas at ambient temperature (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).
In liquid fluorine, iron powder (100-mesh, but not 20-mesh) ignites (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).
At ambient temperature, reduced iron ignites in dinitrogen tetraoxide gas (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).
Iron powder ignites on contact with hydrogen peroxide, nitryl fluoride, peroxyformic acid, potassium dichromate, potassium perchlorate, and sodium peroxide (at 240 degrees C) (Lewis, 1996).
Wet iron dust may ignite during drying (Lewis, 1996).
Iron dust has moderate flammability when exposed to heat or flame (OHM/TADS , 1999; HSDB , 1999).
Combining iron and hydrogen peroxide results in immediate ignition if trace amounts of manganese dioxide are present (HSDB , 1999)
Reaction between iron and chlorine trifluoride results in incandescence (HSDB , 1999).
At ordinary temperature, nitrogen dioxide decomposes in the presence of reduced iron, resulting in incandescence (HSDB , 1999).

FLAMMABILITY CLASSIFICATION

NFPA Flammability Rating for CAS7439-89-6 (NFPA, 2002):

Not Listed

INITIATING OR CONTRIBUTING PROPERTIES

Heating of oily iron dust in a collecting vessel under oxidative conditions resulted in vaporization (of oil), ignition, and subsequent explosion (Urben, 1995).
Hot filtration of aqueous liquor from reduction of a nitro compound with reduced iron powder resulted in formation of iron oxide residues. When air was suctioned through, these residues rapidly heated (Urben, 1995).
A mixture of iron flake powder and polystyrene beads, blended together in a high-speed mixer, ignited and burned rapidly upon discharge into a polyethylene bag. Ignition may have been due to rapid oxidation of the finely divided metal and / or static discharge. Surface coating the iron powder with stearic acid prevented ignition (Urben, 1995).
Possibly wet ferrous scrap was stored in sealed steel tubes for several years. Pressure was noticed when holes were drilled into the tubes. In one tube, drilling holes resulted in ignition and explosion, which was attributed to the generation of hydrogen during storage (Urben, 1995).
At ambient or slightly elevated temperatures, reaction between bromine pentafluoride and iron is violent and may lead to ignition (Urben, 1995).
An explosion occurred when liquid chlorine was added to carbon disulfide in an iron cylinder, but not when glassware was used. The explosion was due to the iron-catalyzed chlorination of carbon disulfide to carbon tetrachloride (Urben, 1995).
Iron ignites in dry chlorine gas at ambient temperature (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).
The reaction between iron and chlorine trifluoride occurs at ambient or slightly elevated temperatures, is violent, and often causes a fire. The severity of the reaction may depend on the state of subdivision (Urben, 1995).
In liquid fluorine, iron powder (100-mesh, but not 20-mesh) ignites (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).
At ambient temperature, reduced iron ignites in dinitrogen tetraoxide gas (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).
In the presence of trace amounts of manganese dioxide, addition of hydrogen peroxide to powdered iron results in ignition upon contact (Urben, 1995).
Addition of 2-3 drops of approximately 90% peroxyformic acid to iron powder results in very rapid auto-combustion if traces of manganese dioxide are present (Urben, 1995).
Mixtures of finely divided iron and sodium peroxide ignite under high friction at 240 degree C (Urben, 1995).
Powdered iron may undergo reaction with water, giving off the flammable gas hydrogen. The heat produced during this chemical reaction may be sufficiently high to ignite the hydrogen gas (AAR, 1998).
Stabilization of pyrophoric iron particles may be achieved through heat treatment with oxygen-containing gases in two stages, first at 25-45 degree C, then at 50-70 degree C (Urben, 1995).
Exceeding a critical specific surface area results in the development of pyrophoricity of finely divided metal powders. Underlying cause for this property seems to be high heat of oxide formation upon exposure to air. Relatively low concentration of oxygen and an inert gas allow for safe handling (Urben, 1995).
Iron powder ignites on contact with polystyrene in the presence of friction or spark (Lewis, 1996).
Iron powder ignites on contact with hydrogen peroxide, nitryl fluoride and heat, peroxyformic acid, potassium dichromate, potassium perchlorate, sodium peroxide (at 240 degrees C) (Lewis, 1996).
Wet iron dust may ignite during drying (Lewis, 1996).
Iron dust has moderate flammability when exposed to heat or flame (OHM/TADS , 1999; HSDB , 1999).
Combining iron and hydrogen peroxide results in immediate ignition if trace amounts of manganese dioxide are present (HSDB , 1999).
Reaction between iron and chlorine trifluoride results in incandescence (HSDB , 1999).
At ordinary temperature, nitrogen dioxide decomposes in the presence of reduced iron, resulting in incandescence (HSDB , 1999).

FIRE CONTROL/EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

SMALL FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)

Dry chemical, CO2, water spray or regular foam.

LARGE FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)

Water spray, fog or regular foam.
Move containers from fire area if you can do it without risk.
Do not scatter spilled material with high pressure water streams.
Dike fire-control water for later disposal.

TANK FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)

Cool containers with flooding quantities of water until well after fire is out.
Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety devices or discoloration of tank.
ALWAYS stay away from tanks engulfed in fire.

NFPA Extinguishing Methods for CAS7439-89-6 (NFPA, 2002):

Not Listed

If powdered iron is on fire or involved in fire, use water only if volume is sufficient to flood area. Otherwise use graphite, soda ash, powdered calcium chloride, or suitable dry powder to extinguish fire (AAR, 1998).

If powdered iron is not on fire or involved in fire, do not use water. Keep iron powder dry. Keep sources of ignition, such as sparks and flames, away from spilled iron. Prevent spillage of iron into water sources and sewers (AAR, 1998).

EXPLOSION HAZARD

Heating of oily iron dust in a collecting vessel under oxidative conditions resulted in vaporization (of oil), ignition, and subsequent explosion (Urben, 1995).

Grinding iron to sizes below 1 micrometer makes it liable to explosive oxidation (Urben, 1995).

Mixing chloric acid and iron leads to the formation of explosive compounds (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).

Powdered iron is explosively ignited by chloroformamidinium nitrate (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).

At ambient or slightly elevated temperatures, reaction between bromine pentafluoride and iron is violent and may lead to ignition (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).

An explosion occurred when liquid chlorine was added to carbon disulfide in an iron cylinder, but not when glassware was used. The explosion was due to the iron-catalyzed chlorination of carbon disulfide to carbon tetrachloride (Urben, 1995).

Preparation of iron(III) chloride from iron powder and chlorine gas using a chlorinated pyridine solvent resulted in an explosion (Urben, 1995).

Ammonium nitrate decomposes violently and may explode in the presence of 0.1% of iron(III) chloride (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).

Chemical interaction between ammonium salt, galvanized iron and ammonia may lead to the formation of the explosive compound tetraamminezinc peroxodisulfate (Urben, 1995).

In the presence of iron(II) catalysts, oxidative rearrangement of 2-amino-4-methyloxazole to 4-hydroperoxy-5-hydroxy-4-methylimidazolidin-2-one needs to be controlled carefully because the latter may become explosive at ambient temperature (Urben, 1995).

Maximum temperatures of 1090 degrees C were observed on ignition of explosive mixtures (1:1 wt) of iron and potassium dichromate (Urben, 1995).

The reaction between iron and chlorine trifluoride occurs at ambient or slightly elevated temperatures, is violent and often causes a fire (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996)

Rubbing sodium acetylide in mortar containing finely divided iron may result in a violent reaction (Lewis, 1996; Urben, 1995).

Violent dissolution of iron takes place in the presence of slightly acidic ammonium peroxodisulfate (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).

DUST/VAPOR HAZARD

Heating of oily iron dust in a collecting vessel under oxidative conditions resulted in vaporization (of oil), ignition, and subsequent explosion (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).

Rust-containing dust violently react with hydrogen peroxide (Urben, 1995).

For dust, explosion potential is moderate when exposed to heat or flame (HSDB , 1999).

REACTIVITY HAZARD

Iron becomes more reactive as it is more finely divided. Ultrafine iron powder is pyrophoric and has the potential to explode (Lewis, 1996).

In the presence of air and water or oil:

Powdered iron may undergo reaction with water, giving off the flammable gas hydrogen. The heat produced during this chemical reaction may be sufficiently high to ignite the hydrogen gas (AAR, 1998).

Iron is a strong reducing agent. It readily oxidizes in the presence of moist air. When hot, it reacts with steam, yielding iron oxide and hydrogen gas (Lewis, 1997).
Wet iron dust may ignite during drying (Lewis, 1996).

Hot filtration of aqueous liquor from reduction of a nitro compound with reduced iron powder resulted in formation of iron oxide residues. When air was suctioned through, these residues rapidly heated (Urben, 1995).
A mixture of iron flake powder and polystyrene beads, blended together in a high-speed mixer, ignited and burned rapidly upon discharge into a polyethylene bag. Ignition may have been due to rapid oxidation of the finely divided metal and/or static discharge. Surface coating the iron powder with stearic acid prevented ignition (Urben, 1995).
Rust was found to catalyze the spontaneous, exothermic reaction between iron powder or turnings with water in the absence of chlorides (Urben, 1995).

In the presence of acetaldehyde:

Impure acetaldehyde will readily polymerize in the presence of iron (exothermic reaction) (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).

In the presence of chloric acid:

Mixing chloric acid and iron leads to the formation of explosive compounds (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).

In the presence of chloroformamidinium nitrate:

Powdered iron is explosively ignited by chloroformamidinium nitrate (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).

In the presence of bromine pentafluoride:

At ambient or slightly elevated temperatures, reaction between bromine pentafluoride and iron powder is violent and may lead to ignition (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).

In the presence of chlorine:

An explosion occurred when liquid chlorine was added to carbon disulfide in an iron cylinder, but not when glassware was used. The explosion was due to the iron-catalyzed chlorination of carbon disulfide to carbon tetrachloride (Urben, 1995).
Preparation of iron(III) chloride from iron powder and chlorine gas using a chlorinated pyridine solvent resulted in an explosion. These reactions were accompanied by formation of heat and evolution of hydrogen chloride (Urben, 1995).
Iron ignites in dry chlorine gas at ambient temperature (Urben, 1995).

In the presence of chlorine trifluoride:

The reaction between iron and chlorine trifluoride occurs at ambient or slightly elevated temperatures, is violent, and often causes a fire (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996). The severity of the reaction may depend on the state of subdivision (Urben, 1995).

In the presence of fluorine:

In liquid fluorine, iron powder (100-mesh, but not 20-mesh) ignites (Urben, 1995).
Powdered iron reacts with fluorine below redness (incandescence) (HSDB , 1999).
Mixture of iron and phosphorus may become incandescent when heated (HSDB , 1999).

In the presence of ammonium nitrate:

Explosive or violent reaction when exposed to heat (Lewis, 1996).

In the presence of ammonium peroxodisulfate:

Violent dissolution of iron takes place in the presence of slightly acidic ammonium peroxodisulfate (Urben, 1995; Lewis, 1996).

Chemical interaction between ammonium salt, galvanized iron and ammonia may lead to the formation of the explosive compound tetraamminezinc peroxodisulfate (Urben, 1995).

In the presence of dinitrogen tetraoxide:

At ambient temperature, reduced iron ignites in dinitrogen tetraoxide gas (Urben, 1995).

In the presence of hydrogen peroxide:

Iron, iron salts and rust-containing dust violently react with hydrogen peroxide (Urben, 1995).
In the presence of iron(II) catalysts, oxidative rearrangement of 2-amino-4-methyloxazole to 4-hydroperoxy-5-hydroxy-4-methylimidazolidin-2-one needs to be controlled carefully because the latter may become explosive at ambient temperature (Urben, 1995).
In the presence of trace amounts of manganese dioxide, addition of hydrogen peroxide to powdered iron results in ignition upon contact (Urben, 1995).
In peroxide handling systems, iron oxide (especially rust) must be thoroughly excluded. This applies to both parent metals and their alloys (Urben, 1995).

In the presence of nitryl fluoride:

Passing mildly warmed nitryl fluoride over iron results in glowing or white incandescence of the fluoride (Urben, 1995).
Ignition occurs on contact between iron, nitryl fluoride, and heat (Lewis, 1996).

In the presence of peroxyformic acid:

Addition of 2-3 drops of approximately 90% peroxyformic acid to iron powder results in very rapid autocombustion only if traces of manganese dioxide are present (Urben, 1995).
Iron ignites on contact with peroxyformic acid (Lewis, 1996).

In the presence of potassium dichromate:

Maximum temperatures of 1090 degrees C were observed on ignition of explosive mixtures (1:1 wt) of iron and potassium dichromate (Urben, 1995).
Iron ignites on contact with potassium dichromate (Lewis, 1996).

In the presence of potassium perchlorate:

After igniting, a mixture of iron and potassium perchlorate generates heat sufficient for metal welding (Urben, 1995).

In the presence of sodium peroxide:

Mixtures of finely divided iron and sodium peroxide ignite under high friction at 240 degrees C (Urben, 1995).

In the presence of sodium acetylide:

Rubbing sodium acetylide in mortar containing finely divided iron may result in a violent reaction (Lewis, 1996; Urben, 1995).

In the presence of diethyl sulfate:

Diethyl sulfate, stored in a sealed iron drum, was hydrolyzed by water in the moisture to sulfuric acid, leading to corrosion of the metal, generation of hydrogen, development of high internal pressure and rupture of the drum (Urben, 1995).

EVACUATION PROCEDURES

SUMMARY

Editor's Note: This material is not listed in the Table of Initial Isolation and Protective Action Distances.

SPILL - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171(ERG, 2004)

Increase, in the downwind direction, as necessary, the isolation distance of at least 50 meters (150 feet) for liquids and at least 25 meters (75 feet) for solids in all directions.

FIRE - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)

If tank, rail car or tank truck is involved in a fire, ISOLATE for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions; also, consider initial evacuation for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions.

PUBLIC SAFETY MEASURES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)

CALL Emergency Response Telephone Number on Shipping Paper first. If Shipping Paper not available or no answer, refer to appropriate telephone number:

MEXICO:

SETIQ:

01-800-00-214-00 in the Mexican Republic;
For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5559-1588;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-559-1588.

CENACOM:

01-800-00-413-00 in the Mexican Republic;
For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5550-1496, 5550-1552, 5550-1485, or 5550-4885;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-550-1496, or 011-52-555-550-1552; 011-52-555-550-1485, or 011-52-555-550-4885.

ARGENTINA:

CIQUIME:

0-800-222-2933 in the Republic of Argentina;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: +54-11-4613-1100.

BRAZIL:

PRÓ-QUÍMICA:

0-800-118270 (Toll-free in Brazil);
For calls originating elsewhere, call: +55-11-232-1144 (Collect calls are accepted).

COLUMBIA:

CISPROQUIM:

01-800-091-6012 in Colombia;
For calls originating in Bogotá, Colombia, call: 288-6012;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-57-1-288-6012.

CANADA:

CANUTEC:

613-996-6666 (Collect calls are accepted);
*666 cellular (in Canada only).

UNITED STATES:

CHEMTREC®:

1-800-424-9300 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
703-527-3887 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

CHEM-TEL, INC.:

1-800-255-3924 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
813-248-0585 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

INFOTRAC:

1-800-535-5053 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
352-323-3500 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

3E COMPANY:

1-800-451-8346 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
760-602-8703 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

NATIONAL RESPONSE CENTER (NRC):

1-800-424-8802 - (24 hours) (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
202-267-2675 for calls in the District of Columbia.

MILITARY SHIPMENTS:

703-697-0218 - Explosives/ammunition incidents (Collect calls are accepted);
1-800-851-8061 - All other dangerous goods incidents.

NATIONWIDE POISON CONTROL CENTER (United States only):

1-800-222-1222 (Toll-free in the U.S.).

For additional details see the section entitled "WHO TO CALL FOR ASSISTANCE" under the ERG Instructions.
As an immediate precautionary measure, isolate spill or leak area in all directions for at least 50 meters (150 feet) for liquids and at least 25 meters (75 feet) for solids.
Keep unauthorized personnel away.
Stay upwind.

AIHA ERPG Values for CAS7439-89-6 (AIHA, 2006):

Not Listed

DOE TEEL Values for CAS7439-89-6 (U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management, 2010):

Listed as Iron
TEEL-0 (units = mg/m3): 2
TEEL-1 (units = mg/m3): 6
TEEL-2 (units = mg/m3): 40
TEEL-3 (units = mg/m3): 75
Definitions:

TEEL-0: The threshold concentration below which most people will experience no adverse health effects.
TEEL-1: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm [parts per million] or mg/m(3) [milligrams per cubic meter]) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience notable discomfort, irritation, or certain asymptomatic, nonsensory effects. However, these effects are not disabling and are transient and reversible upon cessation of exposure.
TEEL-2: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m(3)) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience irreversible or other serious, long-lasting, adverse health effects or an impaired ability to escape.
TEEL-3: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m(3)) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience life-threatening adverse health effects or death.

AEGL Values for CAS7439-89-6 (National Research Council, 2010; National Research Council, 2009; National Research Council, 2008; National Research Council, 2007; NRC, 2001; NRC, 2002; NRC, 2003; NRC, 2004; NRC, 2004; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; 62 FR 58840, 1997; 65 FR 14186, 2000; 65 FR 39264, 2000; 65 FR 77866, 2000; 66 FR 21940, 2001; 67 FR 7164, 2002; 68 FR 42710, 2003; 69 FR 54144, 2004):

Not Listed

NIOSH IDLH Values for CAS7439-89-6 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):

Not Listed

CONTAINMENT/WASTE TREATMENT OPTIONS

SUMMARY

SPILL OR LEAK PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)
- Do not touch or walk through spilled material.
- Stop leak if you can do it without risk.
- Prevent dust cloud.
- Avoid inhalation of asbestos dust.
RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)
- Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
- Structural firefighters' protective clothing will only provide limited protection.
LAND SPILLS
- Liquid or solid material should be contained in a pit, pond, lagoon or other holding area (AAR, 1998).
- Covering solids with plastic sheet should prevent dissolution in rain or fire fighting water (AAR, 1998).
- Surface flow should be diked using soil, sandbags, foamed polyurethane, or foamed concrete (AAR, 1998).
WATER SPILLS
- Spill travel should be limited by using natural barriers or oil spill booms (AAR, 1998).
- Material should be trapped at bottom of body of water by utilizing natural deep water pockets, excavated lagoons, or sand bag barriers (AAR, 1998).
- Use suction hoses to remove trapped material (AAR, 1998).
Suggested disposal methods are landfilling (Sittig, 1991) or salvage (OHM/TADS , 1999).

SMALL LEAK/SPILL

SMALL SPILL PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)
- Take up with sand or other non-combustible absorbent material and place into containers for later disposal.
SMALL DRY SPILL PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)
- With clean shovel place material into clean, dry container and cover loosely; move containers from spill area.

LARGE LEAK/SPILL

LARGE SPILL PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 171 (ERG, 2004)
- Dike far ahead of liquid spill for later disposal.
- Cover powder spill with plastic sheet or tarp to minimize spreading.
- Prevent entry into waterways, sewers, basements or confined areas.

WASTE TREATMENT OPTIONS

RECYCLING/RECLAMATION

Suggested disposal methods are landfilling (Sittig, 1991) or salvage (OHM/TADS , 1999).
Soluble iron salts can be treated either with Sodium-bicarbonate (NaHCO3, from grocery store) or with a cation exchanger (water softener supplies). The precipitated hydroxides can then be removed with an electromagnet (salvage operators) (OHM/TADS , 1999).
Waste management activities associated with material disposition are unique to individual situations. Proper waste characterization and decisions regarding waste management should be coordinated with the appropriate local, state, or federal authorities to ensure compliance with all applicable rules and regulations.

-ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD MANAGEMENT

POLLUTION HAZARD

Groundwater naturally contains 0.01-10 ppm of iron. In brine, thermal springs and mine areas, concentrations up to 1000 ppm may be found (Dragun, 1988).

Four naturally occurring isotopes (Lewis, 1997; Budavari, 1996; HSDB , 1999):

54 (5.82%)
56 (91.66%)
57 (2.19%)
58 (0.33%)

Four artificial, radioactive isotopes (Lewis, 1997; Budavari, 1996):

52
53
55
59-61

Although iron occurs in pure form, it is more commonly found as oxide or carbonate (Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Lewis, 1998), or as sulfide or silicate (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).

Important source ores (Budavari, 1996; Harbison, 1998; HSDB , 1999; ILO, 1998; Lewis, 1997) Zenz, 1994):

hematite (Fe2O3)
magnetite (Fe3O4)
limonite (FeO(OH)-nH2O)
siderite (FeCO3) (also taconite (Lewis, 1997))

Iron is found in 5.1% of the earth's crust. It is the second most abundant metal (Budavari, 1996) and the fourth most abundant element (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).

The content in the earth's crust is 50,000 ppm (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).

It is believed that the earth's core consist mainly of iron (Budavari, 1996).

Native iron, found in Greenland, exists as small grains or nodules in basalt (HSDB , 1999).

ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND KINETICS

WATER

SURFACE WATER
- Iron in low concentration can persist in water indefinitely. Natural alkalinity will reduce high concentrations of iron (OHM/TADS , 1999).

SOIL

TERRESTRIAL
- The natural color of soil is largely influenced by its redox status, which in turn strongly influences the oxidative state of Fe (Dragun, 1988).
- Using oil field brine as dust control or to de-ice roads may lead to increased dissolution of iron in the soil to replenish the concentration of uncomplexed iron in water (Dragun, 1988).
- Iron is extensively absorbed by a fulvic acid (Dragun, 1988).

OTHER

OTHER
- Iron concentrations of 500 mg/L of waste water sludge completely inhibited sludge digestion. Digestion inhibition was already seen at 300 mg/L. No gas production was observed at concentrations of 1500 to 2000 mg/L (OHM/TADS , 1999).
- In aqueous solution, reduction of ferrous iron to ferric iron may be coupled to the production of superoxide anion and peroxide, resulting in the reduction of molecular oxygen (Lewis, 1998).
- In the presence of iron, reaction between superoxide anion and peroxide may result in generation of the extremely toxic hydroxyl radical, with concurrent release of oxygen (Lewis, 1998).
- Homolytic cleavage of peroxide into hydroxyl ion and the highly reactive hydroxyl radical is catalyzed by iron(II) ions (Fenton reaction) (Klaassen, 1996).

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICITY

Freshwater Toxicity Values (OHM/TADS , 1999):

LDLo - CARP: 0.9 ppm -- pH 5.5
LDLo - PIKE, TENCH, TROUT: 1 ppm -- pH 5-6.7
LDLo - DOGFISH: 5 ppm for 3H
LDLo - TROUT: 10 ppm for 0.1H

Saltwater Toxicity Values (OHM/TADS , 1999):

TLm - MARINE FISH: 14 ppm for 48H
LC50 - PRAWN: 39 ppm for 48H
LC50 - SHRIMP: 56 ppm for 48H
LC50 - COCKLE: 190 ppm for 48H
LC50 - CRAB: 90-100 ppm for 48H

Other Toxicity Values (OHM/TADS , 1999):

TDLo - LIVESTOCK: 0.3 ppm

-PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

MOLECULAR WEIGHT

FERRIC PYROPHOSPHATE CITRATE: 1313 daltons (Prod Info TRIFERIC(R) not applicable solution, 2015)

IRON: 55.85 (Budavari, 1996)

IRON SUCROSE: Approximately 34,000 to 60,000 daltons (Prod Info Venofer(R) intravenous injection, 2015)

SODIUM FERRIC GLUCONATE COMPLEX: 289,000 to 440,000 daltons (Prod Info Ferrlecit intravenous injection, 2011)

DESCRIPTION/PHYSICAL STATE

FERRIC PYROPHOSPHATE CITRATE is a clear solution that is slightly yellow/green in color (Prod Info TRIFERIC(R) not applicable solution, 2015).

IRON is a silvery-white or gray, soft, ductile, malleable, somewhat magnetic metal, that takes on a bright polish. In powder form, it is black to gray (HSDB, 2005; Budavari, 1996).

Iron (chemical symbol Fe, from the Latin word ferrum) has the atomic number 26 and belongs to the Group VIII transition elements of the periodic table (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).
Iron can be rolled, hammered, and bent, particularly when red hot (Budavari, 1996).
Iron's magnetism is held only after hardening (as alloy steel, such as Alnico) (Budavari, 1996).
Iron is supplied as ingots, powder, wire, sheets, and other forms (Budavari, 1996).
Iron is stable in dry air and readily oxidizes in moist air, forming "rust" (Budavari, 1996).
Commercial forms of iron usually contain carbon (C), phosphorus (P), silicon (Si), sulfur (S) and manganese (Mn) (Budavari, 1996).
Iron is the only metal that can be tempered (Lewis, 1997).

IRON SUCROSE is a brown, aqueous solution with an osmolarity of 1250 milliosmoles/L (Prod Info Venofer(R) intravenous injection, 2015).

SODIUM FERRIC GLUCONATE COMPLEX is a deep red solution (Prod Info Ferrlecit intravenous injection, 2011).

IRON SUCROSE: 10.5 to 11.1 (Prod Info Venofer(R) intravenous injection, 2015)

SODIUM FERRIC GLUCONATE COMPLEX: 7.7 to 9.7 (Prod Info Ferrlecit intravenous injection, 2011)

VAPOR PRESSURE

1 mmHg (at 1787 degrees C) (HSDB, 2005)

DENSITY

OTHER TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE

PURE: 7.87 (at 20 degrees C) (Lewis, 1997)

TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE NOT LISTED

PURE: 7.86 (HSDB, 2005; OHM/TADS, 2005; Budavari, 1996; Clayton & Clayton, 1994)
CAST: 7.76 (Budavari, 1996)
WROUGHT: 7.25 to 7.78 (Budavari, 1996)
STEEL: 7.6 to 7.78 (Budavari, 1996)

FREEZING/MELTING POINT

MELTING POINT

PURE: 1535 degrees C (HSDB, 2005; OHM/TADS, 2005; Budavari, 1996; Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Lewis, 1996)
PURE: 1536 degrees C (Lewis, 1997)
CAST: 1000 to 1300 degrees C (HSDB, 2005; Budavari, 1996)
WROUGHT: 1500 degrees C (HSDB, 2005; Budavari, 1996)
STEEL: 1300 degrees C (HSDB, 2005; Budavari, 1996)

BOILING POINT

3000 degrees C (HSDB, 2005; OHM/TADS, 2005; Budavari, 1996; Lewis, 1997)

2750 degrees C (Clayton & Clayton, 1994)

SOLUBILITY

IN WATER

Insoluble in hot and cold water (HSDB, 2005)

IN ORGANIC SOLVENTS

Insoluble in alcohol and ether (HSDB, 2005)

OTHER

Readily attacked by diluted mineral acids (HSDB, 2005; Budavari, 1996)
Not appreciably attacked by cold concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) or nitric acid (HNO3), but attacked by hot acids (HSDB, 2005; Budavari, 1996)
Attacked or dissolved by organic acids (HSDB, 2005; Budavari, 1996)
Soluble in acids (Clayton & Clayton, 1994)
Dissolves in sulfuric and hydrochloric acid, and in cold dilute nitric acid (Lewis, 1997)
Insoluble in alkali solutions (HSDB, 2005)

OTHER/PHYSICAL

DISSOCIATION CONSTANT

1.4 to 1000 mL/g (in soils and clay) (Dragun, 1988)

-REFERENCES

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

40 CFR 372.28: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Lower thresholds for chemicals of special concern. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO). Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.

40 CFR 372.65: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Chemicals and Chemical Categories to which this part applies. National Archives and Records Association (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.

49 CFR 172.101 - App. B: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials, Appendix B: List of Marine Pollutants. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 29, 2005.

49 CFR 172.101: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 11, 2005.

62 FR 58840: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 1997.

65 FR 14186: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

65 FR 39264: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

65 FR 77866: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

66 FR 21940: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2001.

67 FR 7164: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2002.

68 FR 42710: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2003.

69 FR 54144: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2004.

AAR: Emergency Handling of Hazardous Material in Surface Transportation, Hazardous Materials Systems (BOE), Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC, 1998.

AIHA: 2006 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines and Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook, American Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006.

AMA Department of DrugsAMA Department of Drugs: AMA Evaluations Subscription, American Medical Association, Chicago, IL, 1992.

Aisen P, Cohen G, & Kang JO: Iron toxicosis. Internat Rev Exp Pathol 1990; 31:1-46.

Akiyama T, Hamazaki S, & Okada S: Absence of ras mutations and low incidence of P53 mutations in renal cell carcinomas induced by ferric nitrilotriacetate. Jpn J Cancer Res 1995; 86:1143-1149.

Allen LH: Iron-deficiency anemia increases risk of preterm delivery. Nutr Rev 1993; 51:49-52.

Altman SA, Zastawny TH, & Randerseichhorn L: Formation of DNA-protein cross-links in cultured mammalian cells upon treatment with iron ions. Free Radic Biol Med 1995; 19:897-802.

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists : ACGIH 2010 Threshold Limit Values (TLVs(R)) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs(R)), American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH, 2010.

Anderson BD, Turchen S, & Manoguerrs AS: Seven year review of children's chewable multivitamin plus iron ingestions. Vet Hum Toxicol 1993; 35:370.

Anderson KJ & Rivers RPA: Desferrioxamine in acute iron poisoning (letter; comment). Lancet 1992; 339:1602.

Angle CR, Iversen PL, & Mata JE: Systemic phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotide as an iron chelator (abstract). Clin Toxicol 2000; 38:529.

Arce DS & Keen CL: Effects of marginal and severe iron deficiency on hepatic proteins in developing rats are reversible with dietary iron repletion. Reprod Toxicol 1993; 7:61-72.

Artigas A, Bernard GR, Carlet J, et al: The American-European consensus conference on ARDS, part 2: ventilatory, pharmacologic, supportive therapy, study design strategies, and issues related to recovery and remodeling.. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157:1332-1347.

Ashford R: Ashford's Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals, Wavelength Publications Ltd, London, England, 1994.

Atiq M, Dang S, Olden KW, et al: Early endoscopic gastric lavage for acute iron overdose: a novel approach to accidental pill ingestions. Acta Gastroenterol Belg 2008; 71(3):345-346.

Audic A & Giacomoni PU: DNA nicking by ultraviolet radiation is enhanced in the presence of iron and of oxygen. Photochem Photobiol 1993; 57:508-512.

Banner W, Vernon DD, & Ward RM: Continuous arteriovenous hemofiltration in experimental iron intoxication. Crit Care Med 1989; 17:1187-1190.

Banner WJ & Tong TG: Iron poisoning. Pediatr Clin North Am 1986; 33:393-409.

Barr J, Berkovitich M, & Tavori I: Acute iron intoxication: the efficacy of deferiprone and sodium bicarbonate in the prevention of iron absorption from the digestive tract. Vet Human Toxicol 1999; 41:308-311.

Barrett JFR, Whittaker PG, & Williams JG: Absorption of non-haem iron from food during normal pregnancy. Br Med J 1994; 309:79-82.

Barton JC, Harmon L, & Rivers C: Hemochromatosis - association of severity of iron overload with genetic markers. Blood Cells Molec Dis 1996; 22:195-204.

Baselt RC & Cravey RH: Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 4th ed, Year Book Medical Publishers, Chicago, IL, 1995.

Baselt RC: Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man, 5th ed, Chemical Toxicology Institute, Foster City, CA, 2000.

Bayer MJ & Rumack BH: Poisoning and overdose, Aspen Systems Corp, Rockville, MD, 1983.

Beasley VR, Dorman DC, & Fikes JD: A Systems Affected Approach to Veterinary Toxicology, 2nd ed, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, 1990.

Beaufrere B, Bresson JL, & Briend A: Iron and pregnancy (French). Arch Pediatr 1995; 2:1209-1218.

Bene C, Manzler A, & Bene D: Irreversible ocular toxicity from a single "challenge" dose of deferoximine. Clin Nephron 1989; 31:45-48.

Benson B & Cheney K: Survival after a severe iron poisoning treated with high dose deferoxamine (DFO) therapy. Vet Hum Toxicol 1992a; 34:329.

Benson B & Cheney K: Survival after a severe iron poisoning treated with high dose deferoxamine (DFO) therapy. Vet Human Toxicol 1992; 34:329.

Benson BE, Cheshire S, McKinney PE, et al: Do poison center guidelines adversely affect patient outcomes as triage referral values increase?. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2003; 41(5):585-590.

Berdoukas V, Bentley P, & Frost H: Toxicity of oral iron chelator L1 (Letter). Lancet 1993; 341:1088.

Bergeron RJ, Wiegand J, & Brittenham GM: HBED: a potential alternative to deferoxamine for iron-chelating therapy. Blood 1998; 91:1446-1452.

Berkovitch M, Livne M, & Lushkov G: The efficacy of oral deferiprone in acute iron poisoning. Am J Emerg Med 2000; 18:36-40.

Beutler E, Gelbert T, & West C: Mutation analysis in hereditary hemochromatosis. Blood Cells Molec Dis 1996; 22:187-194.

Bird CL, Witte JS, & Swendseid ME: Plasma ferritin, iron intake, and the risk of colorectal polyps. Am J Epidemiol 1996; 144:34-41.

Black J & Zenel JA: Child abuse by intentional iron poisoning presenting as shock and persistent acidosis. Pediatrics 2003; 111:197-199.

Blake D, Winyard P, & Lunec J: Cerebral and ocular toxicity induced by deferoxamine. Q J Med 1985; 219:345-355.

Blanc P, Hryhorczuk K, & Daniel I: Deferoxamine treatment of acute iron intoxication in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1984; 64:12s-14s.

Bock GW & Tenenbein M: Whole bowel irrigation for iron overdose (letter). Ann Emerg Med 1987; 16:137.

Boehnert M, Lacouture PG, & Guttmacher A: Massive iron overdose treated with high-dose deferoxamine infusion (Abstract). Vet Human Toxicol 1985; 28:291-292.

Boelaert JR, de Locht M, & Van Cutsem J: Mucormycosis during deferoxamine therapy is a siderophore-mediated infection: in vitro and in vivo animal studies. J Clin Invest 1993; 91:1979-1986.

Bonneau D, Winterfuseau I, & Loiseau MN: Bilateral cataract and high serum ferritin -- a new dominant genetic disorder. J Med Genet 1995; 32:778-779.

Boyd IT, Dool R, & Faults IR: Cancer of the lung in iron ore (hematite) miners. Br J Ind Med 1970; 37:97-105.

Breymann C, von Seefried B, Stahel M, et al: Milk iron content in breast-feeding mothers after administration of intravenous iron sucrose complex. J Perinat Med 2007; 35(2):115-118.

Briefel R, Hanson C, Fox MK, et al: Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study: do vitamin and mineral supplements contribute to nutrient adequacy or excess among US infants and toddlers?. J Am Diet Assoc 2006; 106(1 Suppl 1):S52-S65.

Brophy GM, Bell R, Claassen J, et al: Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2012; 17(1):3-23.

Brower RG, Matthay AM, & Morris A: Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Eng J Med 2000; 342:1301-1308.

Brunt EM, Tavill AS, & Bacon BR: A 49-year-old man with alpha(1)-antitrypsin deficiency and abnormal iron study results. Semin Liver Dis 1996; 16:97-101.

Budavari S: The Merck Index, 12th ed, Merck & Co, Inc, Whitehouse Station, NJ, 1996.

Bunin GR, Nass CC, & Kramer S: Parental occupation and Wilms' tumour: results of a case-control study. Cancer Res 1989; 49:725-729.

Burkhart KK, Kulig KW, & Hammond KB: The rise in the total iron-binding capacity after iron overdose. Ann Emerg Med 1991; 20:532-535.

Burkitt MJ & Mason RP: Direct evidence for in vivo hydroxyl-radical generation in experimental iron overload: an ESR spin-trapping investigation. Proc Natl Acad Sci 1991; 88:8440-8444.

Burns DL & Pomposelli JJ: Toxicity of parenteral iron dextran therapy. Kidney International 1999; 55 (suppl 69):119-124.

Callea F: Iron chelation with oral deferiprone in patients with thalassemia (letter). N Engl J Med 1998; 339:1710-1711.

Camitta BM & Nathan DG: Anemia in adolescence: I. Disturbances of iron balance. Postgrad Med 1975; 57:143.

Caravati EM, Knight HH, & Linscott MS: Esophageal laceration and charcoal mediastinum complicating gastric lavage. J Emerg Med 2001; 20:273-276.

Carlsson M, Cortes D, Jepsen S, et al: Severe iron intoxication treated with exchange transfusion. Arch Dis Child 2008; 93(4):321-322.

Carthew P, Nolan BM, & Smith AG: Iron promotes DEN initiated GST-P foci in rat liver. Carcinogenesis 1997; 18:599-603.

Cataletto M: Respiratory Distress Syndrome, Acute(ARDS). In: Domino FJ, ed. The 5-Minute Clinical Consult 2012, 20th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 2012.

Cavelier C, Mur JM, & Cericola C: Le cancer bronchique chez les mineurs de fer: selection bibliographique d'enquetes epidemiologiques et d'etudes experimentales (French). Cah Notes Documentaires INRS 1980; 100:363-371.

Chamberlain JM, Altieri MA, & Futterman C: A prospective, randomized study comparing intramuscular midazolam with intravenous diazepam for the treatment of seizures in children. Ped Emerg Care 1997; 13:92-94.

Chang DE, Bruns DE, & Spyker DA: Fatal transcutaneous iron intoxication. J Burn Care Rehab 1988; 9:385-388.

Chiesa C, Pacifico L, & Renzulli F: Yersinia hepatic abscesses and iron overload. JAMA 1987; 257:3230-3231.

Chin RF , Neville BG , Peckham C , et al: Treatment of community-onset, childhood convulsive status epilepticus: a prospective, population-based study. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7(8):696-703.

Choonara IA & Rane A: Therapeutic drug monitoring of anticonvulsants state of the art. Clin Pharmacokinet 1990; 18:318-328.

Chyka PA & Brady AY: Elevated ratio of serum iron concentration to total iron binding capacity in the assessment of systemic iron poisoning (Abstract). Vet Human Toxicol 1989; 31:343.

Chyka PA & Butler AY: Assessment of acute iron poisoning by laboratory and clinical observations. Am J Emerg Med 1993; 11:99-103.

Chyka PA, Butler AY, & Herman MI: Ferrous sulfate adsorption by activated charcoal. Vet Human Toxicol 2000; 43:11-13.

Chyka PA, Butler AY, & Holley JE: Serum iron concentrations and symptoms of acute poisoning in children. Pharmacotherapy 1996; 16:1053-1058.

Chyka PA, Seger D, Krenzelok EP, et al: Position paper: Single-dose activated charcoal. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2005; 43(2):61-87.

Clayton GD & Clayton FE: Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Volume 2C. Toxicology, 4th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1994.

Cohen AR, Galanello R, & Piga A: Safety profile of the oral iron chelator deferiprone: a multicentre study. Br J Haematol 2000; 108:305-312.

Comes J, Walter FG, & Kozaki K: Liver transplantation for fulminant hepatic failure due to acute iron poisoning (Abstract). Vet Human Toxicol 1993; 35:337.

Curry SC, Bond GR, & Raschke R: An ovine model of maternal iron poisoning in pregnancy. Ann Emerg Med 1990; 19:632-638.

Curry SC, Bond GR, & Rascke R: An ovine model of maternal iron poisoning in pregnancy. Ann Emerg Med 1990a; 19:632-638.

Czajka PA, Konrad JD, & Duffy JP: Iron poisoning: An in vitro comparison of bicarbonate and phosphate lavage solutions. J Pediatr 1981; 98:491.

DFG: List of MAK and BAT Values 2002, Report No. 38, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazards of Chemical Compounds in the Work Area, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany, 2002.

Damber L & Larsson G: Underground mining, smoking and lung cancer: a case control study in the iron ore municipalities of northern Sweden. J Natl Cancer Inst 1985; 74:1207-1213.

Daram SR & Hayashi PH: Acute liver failure due to iron overdose in an adult. South Med J 2005; 98(2):241-244.

Darby SC, Radford EP, & Whitley E: Radon exposure and cancers other than lung cancer in Swedish iron miners. Environ Health Perspect 1995; 103(Suppl 2):45-47.

Davies SC, Marcus RE, & Hungerford JL: Ocular toxicity of high-dose intravenous desferrioxamine. Lancet 1983; 2:181-184.

Dean BS & Krenzelok EP: Efficacy of oral complexation in acute iron poisoning (abstract). Vet Hum Toxicol 1985; 28:292.

Dean BS & Krenzelok EP: In vivo effectiveness of oral complexation agents in the management of iron poisoning. Clin Toxicol 1987; 25:221-230.

Dean BS, Oehme FW, & Krenzelok EP: A study of iron complexation in a swine model. Vet Human Toxicol 1988; 30:313-315.

Decker WJ, Combs HF, & Corby DG: Adsorption of drugs and poisons by activated charcoal. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1968; 13:454-460.

Diav-Citrin O & Koren G: Oral iron chelation with deferiprone. Ped Clinic of North America 1997; 44:235-247.

Dragun J: The Soil Chemistry of Hazardous Materials, Hazardous Materials Control Research Institute, Silver Spring, MD, 1988.

EPA: Search results for Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Inventory Chemicals. US Environmental Protection Agency, Substance Registry System, U.S. EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.epa.gov/srs/.

ERG: Emergency Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial Phase of a Dangerous Goods/Hazardous Materials Incident, U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Washington, DC, 2004.

Edling C: Lung cancer and smoking in a group of iron ore miners. Am J Ind Med 1982; 3:191-199.

Eggleston W & Stork CM: Acute iron overdose in the setting of active labor with fetal umbilical cord serum iron concentration: 2015 Annual Meeting of the North American Congress of Clinical Toxicology (NACCT). Clin Toxicol 2015; 53(7):649-649.

Elliot CG, Colby TV, & Kelly TM: Charcoal lung. Bronchiolitis obliterans after aspiration of activated charcoal. Chest 1989; 96:672-674.

Engle JP, Polin KS, & Stile IL: Acute iron intoxication: treatment controversies. Drug Intell Clin Pharm 1987; 21:153-159.

Eshel G, Barr J, & Chazan S: Efficacy of orally administered deferoxamine, activated charcoal, and sodium bicarbonate in acute iron intoxication in rats: Implications for the treatment of pediatric iron poisoning. Curr Ther Res 2000; 61:648-656.

Everson GW, Bertaccini EJ, & O'Leary J: Use of whole bowel irrigation in an infant following iron overdose. Am J Emerg Med 1991; 9:366-369.

Everson GW, Oudjhane K, & Young LW: Effectiveness of abdominal radiographs in visualizing chewable iron supplements following overdose. Am J Emerg Med 1989; 7:459-463.

FDA: Poison treatment drug product for over-the-counter human use; tentative final monograph. FDA: Fed Register 1985; 50:2244-2262.

Fabia J & Thuy TD: Occupation of father at time of birth of children dying of malignant diseases. Br J Prev Soc Med 1974; 28:98-100.

Faulds JS & Stewart JM: Carcinoma of the lung in hematite miners. J Pathol Bacteriol 1956; 72:353-365.

Fil LJ, Lee D, Nogar J, et al: Massive Iron Overdose Resulting in a Liver Transplant in an Adult. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2015; 53(7):745.

Fogelholm M, Alopaeus K, & Silvennoinen T: Factors affecting iron status in non-pregnant women from urban south Finland. Eur J Clin Nutr 1993; 47:567-574.

Forbes G: Poisoning with a preparation of iron, copper, and manganese. Br Med J 1947; 1:367-370.

Foxford R & Goldfrank: Gastrotomy -- a surgical approach to iron overdose. Ann Emerg Med 1985; 14:1223-1226.

Fredriksson A, Schroder N, & Eriksson P: Neonatal Iron Exposure Induces Neurobehavioural Dysfunctions in Adult Mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1999; 159:25-30.

Freedman MH, Grisaru D, & Olivieri N: Pulmonary syndrome in patients with thalassemia major receiving intravenous deferoxamine infusions. Am J Dis Child 1990; 144(5):565-569.

Freeman DA & Manoguerra AS: Absence of urinary color change in a severely iron-poisoned child treated with deferoxamine (abstract). Vet Hum Toxicol 1981; 23(Suppl 1):49.

Gades NM, Chyka PA, & Virgous CK: Activated charcoal and the absorption of ferrous sulfate in rats. Vet Human Toxicol 2003; 45:183-187.

Gades NM, Chyka PA, & Virgous CK: Influence of activated charcoal on the absorption of ferrous sulfate in rats (abstract). Clin Toxicol 2000; 38:528.

Gallant T, Freedman MH, & Vellend H: Yersinia sepsis in patients with iron overload treated with deferoxamine. N Engl J Med 1986; 314:1643.

Gandhi RK & Robarts FH: Hour-glass stricture of the stomach and pyloric stenosis due to ferrous sulfate poisoning. Br J Surg 1962; 49:613-617.

Gaspar MJ, Ortega RM, & Moreiras O: Relationship between iron status in pregnant women and their newborn babies -- investigation in a Spanish population. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1993; 72:534-537.

Geffner ME & Opas LM: Phosphate poisoning complicating treatment for iron ingestion. Am J Dis Child 1980; 134:509-510.

Ghio AJ, Jaskot RH, & Hatch GE: Lung injury after silica instillation is associated with an accumulation of iron in rats. Am J Physiol Lung Cell M Ph 1994; 11:L686-L692.

Gleason: Acute hepatic failure in severe iron poisoning. J Pediatr 1979; 95:138-140.

Goldstein LH & Berkovitch M: Ingestion of slow-release iron treated with gastric lavage--never say late. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2006; 44(3):343-.

Golej J, Boigner H, Burda G, et al: Severe respiratory failure following charcoal application in a toddler. Resuscitation 2001; 49:315-318.

Gomez HF, McClafferty HH, & Flory D: Prevention of gastrointestinal iron absorption by chelation from an orally administered premixed deferoxamine/charcoal slurry. Ann Emerg Med 1997; 30:587-592.

Gordeuk VR, McLaren GD, & Samowitz W: Etiologies, consequences, and treatment of iron overload. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 1994; 31:89-133.

Gorell JM, Johnson CC, & Rybicki BA: Occupational exposure to manganese, copper, lead, iron, mercury and zinc and the risk of Parkinson's disease. NeuroToxicology 1999; 20:239-248.

Graff GR, Stark J, & Berkenbosch JW: Chronic lung disease after activated charcoal aspiration. Pediatrics 2002; 109:959-961.

Grant WM & Schuman JS: Toxicology of the Eye, 4th Ed, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1993.

Green P, Eviatar JM, & Sirota P: Secondary hemochromatosis due to prolonged iron ingestion. Isr J Med Sci 1989; 25:199-201.

Greengard J: Iron poisoning in children. Clin Toxicol 1975; 8:575-597.

Griffith EA, Fallgatter KC, Tantama SS, et al: Effect of Deferasirox on Iron Absorption in a Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Crossover Study in a Human Model of Acute Supratherapeutic Iron Ingestion. Ann Emerg Med 2011; Epub:Epub.

Gumber MR, Kute VB, Shah PR, et al: Successful treatment of severe iron intoxication with gastrointestinal decontamination, deferoxamine, and hemodialysis. Ren Fail 2013; 35(5):729-731.

Gurevich MA: Primary cancer of the lung in iron ore miners. Sov Med 1967; 30:71-76.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 1999; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2005; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Haas CF: Mechanical ventilation with lung protective strategies: what works?. Crit Care Clin 2011; 27(3):469-486.

Haider F, De Carli C, Dhanani S, et al: Emergency laparoscopic-assisted gastrotomy for the treatment of an iron bezoar. J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A 2009; 19 Suppl 1:S141-S143.

Harbison RD: Hamilton & Hardy's Industrial Toxicology, 5th ed, Mosby-Year Book, Inc, St. Louis, MO, 1998a.

Harbison RD: Hamilton & Hardy's Industrial Toxicology, 5th ed, Mosby-Year Books, St. Louis, MO, 1998.

Harchelroad F & Rice S: Iron dextran: treatment or overdose? (abstract). Vet Hum Toxicol 1992; 34:329.

Harju E: Clinical pharmacokinetics of iron preparations. Clin Pharmacokinet 1989; 17:69-89.

Harju E: Clinical pharmacokinetics of iron preparations. Clin Pharmacokinet 1989a; 17:69-89.

Harris CR & Filandrinos D: Accidental administration of activated charcoal into the lung: aspiration by proxy. Ann Emerg Med 1993; 22:1470-1473.

Hartwig A & Schlepegrell R: Induction of oxidative DNA damage by ferric iron in mammalian cells. Carcinogenesis 1995; 16:3009-3013.

Hegenbarth MA & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs: Preparing for pediatric emergencies: drugs to consider. Pediatrics 2008; 121(2):433-443.

Helfer & Rodgerson: The effect of deferoxamine on the determination of serum iron and iron-binding capacity. J Pediatr 1966; 68:804-806.

Hemmer W, Focke M, & Wantke F: Contact hypersensitivity to iron. Contact Dermatitis 1996; 34:219-220.

Hemminki K, Saloniemi I, & Salonen T: Childhood cancer and parental occupation in Finland. J Epidemiol Community Health 1981; 35:11-15.

Hershko CM, Link GM, Konijn AM, et al: Iron chelation therapy. Curr Hematol Rep 2005; 4(2):110-116.

Hoffbrand AV & Wonke B: Iron chelation therapy. J Intern Med 1997; 242:37-41.

Howland MA: Risks of parenteral deferoxamine for acute iron poisoning. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1996; 34(5):491-497.

Hung O, Manoach S, & Howland MA: Deferiprone for acute iron poisoning (abstract). J Toxicol-Clin Toxicol 1997; 35:565.

Hvidberg EF & Dam M: Clinical pharmacokinetics of anticonvulsants. Clin Pharmacokinet 1976; 1:161.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: 1,3-Butadiene, Ethylene Oxide and Vinyl Halides (Vinyl Fluoride, Vinyl Chloride and Vinyl Bromide), 97, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2008.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol and 1-tert-Butoxypropan-2-ol, 88, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2006.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Household Use of Solid Fuels and High-temperature Frying, 95, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010a.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Smokeless Tobacco and Some Tobacco-specific N-Nitrosamines, 89, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2007.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some Non-heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Some Related Exposures, 92, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010.

IARC: List of all agents, mixtures and exposures evaluated to date - IARC Monographs: Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity to Humans, Volumes 1-88, 1972-PRESENT. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon, FranceAvailable from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/monoeval/crthall.html. As accessed Oct 07, 2004.

ICAO: Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air, 2003-2004. International Civil Aviation Organization, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2002.

ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 4th ed., Vol. 1-4, JM Stellman (ed.), International Labour Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1998.

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: list of classifications, volumes 1-116. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Lyon, France. 2016. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/latest_classif.php. As accessed 2016-08-24.

International Agency for Research on Cancer: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. 2015. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/. As accessed 2015-08-06.

Ioannides AS & Panisello JM: Acute respiratory distress syndrome in children with acute iron poisoning: the role of intravenous desferrioxamine. Eur J Pediatr 2000; 159:158-159.

Jaeger RW, De Castro FJ, & Barry RC: Radiopacity of drugs and plants in vitro -- limited usefulness. Vet Human Toxicol 1981; 23:2-4.

James JA: Acute iron poisoning: assessment of severity and prognosis. J Pediatr 1970; 77:117-119.

Jorgensen HS: A study of mortality from lung cancer among miners of Kiruna 1950-1970. Work Environ Health 1973; 10:126-133.

Kaczorowski J & Wax P: Whole bowel irrigation with 44 liters of polyethylene glycol in a pediatric iron OD (abstract 7), AAPCC/AACT/ACMT/ CAPCC North American Congress of Clinical Toxicology Meeting, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1994, pp 23-26.

Kantor AF, Curnen MG, & Meigs JW: Occupations of fathers of patients with Wilms' tumour. J Epidemiol Community Health 1979; 33:253-256.

Kawada A, Hiruma M, & Noguchi H: Photosenitivity due to sodium ferrous citrate. Contact Dermatitis 1996; 34:77-78.

Kirshenbaum LA, Mathews SC, & Sitar DS: Whole-bowel irrigation versus activated charcoal in sorbitol for the ingestion of modified-release pharmaceuticals. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1989; 46:264-271.

Klaassen CD: Casarett & Doull's Toxicology. The Basic Science of Poisons, 5th ed, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1996.

Klein-Schwartz W, Oderda GM, & Gorman RL: Assessment of management guidelines. Acute iron ingestion. Clin Pediatr 1990; 29:316-321.

Kleinman ME, Chameides L, Schexnayder SM, et al: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Part 14: pediatric advanced life support. Circulation 2010; 122(18 Suppl.3):S876-S908.

Knasel AL & Collins-Barrow MD: Applicability of early indicators of iron toxicity. J Natl Med Assoc 1986; 78:1037-1040.

Kollef MH & Schuster DP: The acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 1995; 332:27-37.

Kontoghiorghes GJ, Agarwal MB, Tondury P, et al: Deferiprone or fata iron toxic effects?. Lancet 2001; 357:882-883.

Kontoghiorghes GJ, Aldouri MA, & Hoffbrand AV: Effective chelation of iron in beta thalassaemia with the oral chelator 1,2-dimethyl-3- hydroxypyrid-4-one. Br Med J 1987; 295:1509-1512.

Kowdley KV: Iron-chelation therapy with oral deferiprone -- toxicity or lack of efficacy?. N Eng J Med 1998; 339:468-469.

Kraffert CA & Hogan DJ: Vibrio vulnificus infection and iron overload. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992; 26:140.

Krenzelok EP: Iron poisoning: selected diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic issues. Clin Tox Forum 1991; 1(5).

Kwa SL & Fine LJ: The association between parental occupation and childhood malignancy. J Occup Med 1980; 22:792-794.

Lacouture PG, Wason S, & Temple AR: Emergency assessment of severity in iron overdose by clinical and laboratory methods. J Pediatr 1981; 99:89-91.

Landsman I, Bricker JT, & Reid BS: Emergency gastrotomy: treatment of choice for iron bezoar. J Pediatr Surg 1987; 22:184-185.

Lawler AB, Mandel JS, & Schuman LM: A retrospective cohort mortality study of iron ore (hematite) miners in Minnesota. J Occup Med 1985; 27:507-517.

Lee P, Culver DA, Farver C, et al: Syndrome of iron pill aspiration. Chest 2002; 121:1355-1357.

Leighton PM & MacSween HM: Yersinia hepatic abscesses subsequent to long- term iron therapy. JAMA 1987; 257:964-965.

Lewis RA: Lewis' Dictionary of Toxicology, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1998.

Lewis RJ: Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 13th ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, NY, 1997.

Lewis RJ: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 9th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1996.

Linakis JG, Lacouture PG, & Woolf AD: Iron absorption from chewable multivitamins with iron (MVI) vs ferrous fumarate tablets (Abstract). Vet Human Toxicol 1989; 31:342.

Ling LJ, Hornfeldt CS, & Winter JP: Absorption of iron after experimental overdose of chewable vitamins. Am J Med 1991; 9:24-26.

Link G: Mitochrondrial respiratory enzymes are a major target of iron toxicity in rat heart cells. J Lab Clin Med 1998; 131:466-474.

Loddenkemper T & Goodkin HP: Treatment of Pediatric Status Epilepticus. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2011; Epub:Epub.

Lovejoy FH Jr: Chelation therapy in iron poisoning. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1982; 19:871-874.

Lovejoy FH: Chelation therapy in iron poisoning. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1983; 19:871-874.

Lowengart RA, Peters JM, & Cicioni C: Childhood leukemia and parents' occupational and home exposures. J Natl Cancer Inst 1987; 79:39-46.

Lynch SR & Baynes RD: Deliberations and evaluations of the approaches, endpoints and paradigms for iron dietary recommendations. J Nutr 1996; 126:S2404-S2409.

Lynch SR: Iron overload - prevelance and impact on health. Nutr Rev 1995; 53:255-260.

Macarol V & Yawalkar SJ: Desferrioxamine in acute iron poisoning (Letter). Lancet 1992; 339:1601.

Maes M, Vandevyvere J, & Vandoolaeghe E: Alterations in iron metabolism and the erythrom in major depression - further evidence for a chronic inflammatory process. J Affective Disord 1996; 40:23-33.

Mahoney JR, Hallaway PE, & Hedlund BE: Acute iron poisoning. Rescue with macromolecular chelators. J Clin Invest 1989; 84:1362-1366.

Mandel JS, Mclaughlin JK, & Schlehofer B: International renal-cell cancer study. 4. Occupation. Internat J Cancer 1995; 61:601-605.

Mann KV, Picciotti MA, & Spevack TA: Management of acute iron overdose. Clin Pharm 1989; 8:428-440.

Manno EM: New management strategies in the treatment of status epilepticus. Mayo Clin Proc 2003; 78(4):508-518.

Manoguerra AS, Erdman AR, Booze LL, et al: Iron ingestion: an evidence-based consensus guideline for out-of-hospital management. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2005; 43(6):553-570.

Manoguerra AS: Iron poisoning: report of a fatal case in an adult. Am J Hosp Pharm 1976; 33:1088-1090.

McElhatton PR, Roberts JC, & Sullivan FM: The consequences of iron overdose and its treatment with desferrioxamine in pregnancy. Hum Exper Toxicol 1991a; 10:251-259.

McElhatton PR, Roberts JC, & Sullivan FM: The consequences of iron overdose and its treatment with desferrioxamine in pregnancy. Human Exper Toxicol 1991; 10:251-259.

McGuigan MA: Acute iron poisoning. Pediatr Ann 1996; 25:33-38.

Melby K, Slordahl S, & Gutteberg TJ: Septicaemia due to Yersinia enterocolitica after oral overdoses of iron. Br Med J 1982; 285:467-468.

Melby K, Slordahl S, & Gutteberg TJ: Septicemia due to Yersinia enterocolitica after oral overdoses of iron. Br Med J 1982a; 285:467-468.

Merker HJ, Vormann J, & Gunther T: Iron-induced injury of rat testis. Andrologia 1996; 28:267-273.

Meyers DG: The iron hypothesis - does iron cause atherosclerosis?. Clin Cardiol 1996; 19:925-929.

Milne C & Petros A: The use of haemofiltration for severe iron overdose. Arch Dis Child 2010; 95(6):482-483.

Milteer RM, Sarpong S, & Poydras U: Yersinia enterocolitica septicemia after accidental oral iron overdose. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1989; 8:537-538.

Mofenson HC, Caraccio TR, & Sharieff N: Iron sepsis: Yersinia enterocolitica septicemia possibly caused by an overdose of iron (Letter). N Engl J Med 1987; 316:1092-1093.

Morrison HI, Semenciw RM, & Mao Y: Serum iron and risk of fatal acute myocardial infarction. Epidemiology 1994; 5:243-246.

Movassaghi N, Purugganan GG, & Leikin S: Comparison of exchange transfusion and deferoxamine in the treatment of acute iron poisoning. J Pediatr 1969; 75:604-608.

Mullaney TP & Brown CM: Iron toxicity in neonatal foals. Equine Vet J 1988; 20:119-124.

NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 13th ed., National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

NHLBI ARDS Network: Mechanical ventilation protocol summary. Massachusetts General Hospital. Boston, MA. 2008. Available from URL: http://www.ardsnet.org/system/files/6mlcardsmall_2008update_final_JULY2008.pdf. As accessed 2013-08-07.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 1, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 2, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2002.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 3, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2003.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 4, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2004.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Butylene Oxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648083cdbb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Dibromoethane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802796db&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 2-Ethylhexyl Chloroformate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037904e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Acrylonitrile (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648028e6a3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Adamsite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Agent BZ (3-quinuclidinyl benzilate) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ad507&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Allyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039d9ee&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Arsenic Trioxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480220305&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Automotive Gasoline Unleaded (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cc17&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Biphenyl (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1b7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bis-Chloromethyl Ether (BCME) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648022db11&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Boron Tribromide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae1d3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromine Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039732a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromoacetone (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187bf&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Calcium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae328&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Sulfide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037ff26&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Chlorobenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803a52bb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Cyanogen (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187fe&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Dimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbf3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Diphenylchloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091884e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Phosphorodichloridate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480920347&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809203e7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Germane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963906&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Hexafluoropropylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1f5&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ketene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ee7c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Malathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809639df&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Mercury Vapor (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a087&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Isothiocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a03&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a57&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802a4985&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methylchlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5f4&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c646&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN1 CAS Reg. No. 538-07-8) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN2 CAS Reg. No. 51-75-2) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN3 CAS Reg. No. 555-77-1) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Tetroxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091855b&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Trifluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008o. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e32&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perchloryl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e268&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perfluoroisobutylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008p. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dd58&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020cc0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phorate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008q. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dcc8&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene (Draft-Revised). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a08a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene Oxime (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26d&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Propargyl Alcohol (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec91&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Selenium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec55&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Silane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d523&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Strontium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sulfuryl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec7a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tear Gas (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008s. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e551&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tellurium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e2a1&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tert-Octyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008r. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5c7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tetramethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-17.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7d608&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethylacetyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008t. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5cc&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Zinc Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for n-Butyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064808f9591&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, 2007.

National Research Council : Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 5, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2007.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 6, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2008.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 7, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2009.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 8, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2010.

Nelson RL, Davis FG, & Sutter E: Body iron stores and risk of colonic neoplasia. J Nat Cancer Inst 1994; 86:455-460.

Ng HW, Tse ML, Lau FL, et al: Endoscopic removal of iron bezoar following acute overdose. Clinical toxicology 2008; 46(9):913-915.

Ng RCW, Perry K, & Martin DJ: Iron poisoning. Assessment of radiography in diagnosis and management. Clin Pediatr 1979; 18:614-616.

Noble C, Weber M, & Johnson DW: High Dose Intravenous Deferoxamine after a Large Iron Overdose. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2015; 53(7):709.

None Listed: Position paper: cathartics. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2004; 42(3):243-253.

O'Neil-Cutting MA & Crosby WM: The effect of antacids on the absorption of simultaneously ingested iron. JAMA 1986; 255:1468-1470.

OHM/TADS : Oil and Hazardous Materials/Technical Assistance Data System. US Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC (Internet Version). Edition expires 1999; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

OHM/TADS: Oil and Hazardous Materials Technical Assistance Data System. US Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, D.C. (Internet Version). Edition expires 2005; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Oderda GM, Gorman RL, & Rose SR: When is referral to the hospital necessary in acute iron ingestion? (Abstract). Vet Human Toxicol 1987; 29:465.

Oderda GM, Gorman RL, & Rose SR: When is referral to the hospital necessary in acute iron ingestion? (abstract). Vet Hum Toxicol 1987a; 29:465.

Olenmark M, Biber B, & Dottori O: Fatal iron intoxication in late pregnancy. Clin Toxicol 1987; 25:347-359.

Olivieri N, Buncic J, Chew E, et al: Visual and auditory neurotoxicity in patients receiving subcutaneous deferoxamine infusions.. N Engl J Med 1986; 314:869-73.

Olivieri NF, Brittenham GM, & McLaren CE: Long-term safety and effectiveness of iron-chelation therapy with deferiprone for thalassemia major. N Engl J Med 1998; 339:417-423.

Olivieri NF, Koren G, & Hermann C: Comparison of oral iron chelator L1 and desferrioxamine in iron-loaded patients. Lancet 1990; 336:1275-1279.

Olsen JH, de Nully Brown P, & Schulgen G: Parental employment at time of conception and risk of cancer in offspring. Eur J Cancer 1991; 27:958-965.

Opheim KE & Raisys VA: Therapeutic drug monitoring in pediatric acute drug intoxications. Ther Drug Monit 1985; 7:148-158.

Patruta SI & Horl WH: Iron and infection. Kidney International 1999; 55 (suppl 69):125-130.

Peberdy MA , Callaway CW , Neumar RW , et al: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science. Part 9: post–cardiac arrest care. Circulation 2010; 122(18 Suppl 3):S768-S786.

Pengloan J, Dantal J, & Rossazza M: Ocular toxicity after a single intravenous dose of desferrioxamine in 2 hemodialyzed patients. Nephron 1987; 46:211-212.

Perrone J, Lawless ST, & Quintana E: Fatal iron poisoning associated with massive iron level (18,570 mcg/dL) (abstract). Clin Toxicol 2000; 38:551.

Peterson CD & Fifield GC: Emergency gastrotomy for acute iron poisoning. Ann Emerg Med 1980; 9:262-264.

Pham QT, Chau N, & Patris A: Prospective mortality study among iron miners. Cancer Detect Prevent 1991; 15:449-454.

Pham QT, Laertner M, & Mur JM: Incidence of lung cancer among iron miners. Eur J Resp Dis 1983; 64:534-540.

Pollack MM, Dunbar BS, & Holbrook PR: Aspiration of activated charcoal and gastric contents. Ann Emerg Med 1981; 10:528-529.

Product Information: AURYXIA(TM) oral tablets, ferric citrate oral tablets. Keryx Biopharmaceuticals, Inc. (per manufacturer), Boston, MA, 2016.

Product Information: Auryxia(TM) oral tablets, ferric citrate oral tablets. Keryx Biopharmaceuticals, Inc. (per manufacturer), New York, NY, 2014.

Product Information: Enfamil(R) Fer-In-Sol(R) oral drops, ferrous sulfate oral drops. Mead Johnson & Company, LLC (per manufacturer), Glenview, IL, 2011.

Product Information: FERREX 150 oral capsules, iron (polysaccharide iron) complex oral capsules. Breckenridge Pharmaceuticals,Inc, Boca Raton, FL, 2003.

Product Information: Ferrlecit intravenous injection, sodium ferric gluconate complex in sucrose intravenous injection. sanofi-aventis U.S. LLC (per FDA), Bridgewater, NJ, 2011.

Product Information: Ferrlecit(R) intravenous injection, sodium ferric gluconate complex in sucrose intravenous injection. sanofi-aventis U.S. LLC (per DailyMed), Bridgewater, NJ, 2014.

Product Information: NIFEREX(R) oral elixir, iron (polysaccharide iron) complex oral elixir. Ther-Rx Corp, St. Louis, MO, 2005.

Product Information: SLOW RELEASE IRON oral tablets, ferrous sulfate oral tablets. Mason Vitamins,Inc, Miami Lakes, FL, 2007.

Product Information: TRIFERIC(R) not applicable solution, ferric pyrophosphate citrate not applicable solution. Rockwell Medical Inc (per FDA), Wixom, MI, 2016.

Product Information: TRIFERIC(R) not applicable solution, ferric pyrophosphate citrate not applicable solution. Rockwell Medical, Inc (per manufacturer), Wixom , MI, 2015.

Product Information: Venofer(R) intravenous injection solution, iron sucrose intravenous injection solution. American Regent, Inc. (per FDA), Shirley, NY, 2012.

Product Information: Venofer(R) intravenous injection, iron sucrose intravenous injection. American Regent, Inc (per manufacturer), Shirley, NY, 2015.

Product Information: deferoxamine mesylate subcutaneous injection, intramuscular injection, intravenous injection, deferoxamine mesylate subcutaneous injection, intramuscular injection, intravenous injection. APP Pharmaceuticals,LLC (per DailyMed), Schaumburg, IL, 2012.

Product Information: diazepam IM, IV injection, diazepam IM, IV injection. Hospira, Inc (per Manufacturer), Lake Forest, IL, 2008.

Product Information: dopamine hcl, 5% dextrose IV injection, dopamine hcl, 5% dextrose IV injection. Hospira,Inc, Lake Forest, IL, 2004.

Product Information: lorazepam IM, IV injection, lorazepam IM, IV injection. Akorn, Inc, Lake Forest, IL, 2008.

Product Information: norepinephrine bitartrate injection, norepinephrine bitartrate injection. Sicor Pharmaceuticals,Inc, Irvine, CA, 2005.

Proudfoot AT, Simpson D, & Dyson EH: Management of acute iron poisoning. Med Toxicol 1986; 1:83-100.

RTECS : Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 1999; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Rau NR, Nagaraj MV, Prakash PS, et al: Fatal pulmonary aspiration of oral activated charcoal. Br Med J 1988; 297:918-919.

Rayburn WF, Donn SM, & Wulf ME: Iron overdose during pregnancy: Successful therapy with deferoxamine. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1983; 717-718.

Richardson DR & Ponka P: Pyridoxal isonicotynol hydrazone and its alalogs: Potential oral effective iron-chelating agents for the treatment of iron overload disease. J Lab Clin Med 1998; 131:306-315.

Roberts WL, Smith PT, & Martin WJ: Performance characteristics of three serum iron and total iron-binding capacity methods in acute iron overdose. Am J Clin Pathol 1999; 112:657-664.

Robertson A & Tenenbein M: Hepatotoxicity in acute iron poisoning. Hum Exp Toxicol 2005; 24(11):559-562.

Robertson WO: Iron poisoning: a problem in childhood. Top Emerg Med 1979; 1:57-63.

Roodenburg AJC: Iron supplementation during pregnancy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1995; 61:65-71.

Roxburgh RC: Fersolate poisoning. Proc Roy Soc Med 1949; 42:85-86.

Roxe DM, Krumlovsky FA, & Del Greco F: Failure of deferoxamine to improve iron overload in chronic hemodialysis patients. Internat J Artifical Organs 1990; 13:211-217.

Sarker AH, Watanabe S, & Seki S: Oxygen radical-induced single-strand DNA breaks and repair of the damage in a cell-free system. Mutat Res 1995; 337:85-95.

Scanderbeg AC, Izzi GC, & Butturini A: Pulmonary syndrome and intravenous high-dose desferrioxamine. Lancet 1990; 336:1511.

Schardein JL: Chemically Induced Birth Defects, 2nd ed, Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York, NY, 1993.

Scharnetzky M, Konig R, & Lakomek M: Prophylaxis of systemic yersiniosis in thalassaemia major. Lancet 1984; 1:791.

Schauben JL, Augenstein WL, & Cox J: Iron poisoning: report of three cases and a review of therapeutic intervention. J Emerg Med 1990; 8:309-319.

Scholl TO & Hediger ML: Anemia and iron-deficiency anemia -- compilation of data on pregnancy outcome. Am J Clin Nutr 1994; 59(Suppl 2):S492-S501.

Schonfeld NA & Haftel AJ: Acute iron poisoning in children: Evaluation of the predictive value of clinical and laboratory parameters (Abstract). Ann Emerg Med 1989; 18:447.

Scott R, Besag FMC, & Neville BGR: Buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for treatment of prolonged seizures in childhood and adolescence: a randomized trial. Lancet 1999; 353:623-626.

Seifert SA: Deferoxamine. In: Dart RC, ed. Medical Toxicology, 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 2004.

Sempos CT, Looker AC, & Gillum RF: Iron and heart disease - the epidemiologic data. Nutr Rev 1996; 54:73-84.

Siff JE, Meldon SW, & Tomassoni AJ: Usefulness of the total iron binding capacity in the evaluation and treatment of acute iron overdose. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 33:73-76.

Singer ST & Vichinsky EP: Deferoxamine treatment during pregnancy: Is it harmful?. Am J Hematol 1999; 60:24-26.

Singer ST & Vichinsky EP: Deferoxamine treatment during pregnancy: is it harmful?. Am J Hematol 1999a; 60:24-26.

Sittig M: Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens, 3rd ed, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1991.

Smith SW, Ling LJ, & Halstenson CE: Whole-bowel irrigation as a treatment for acute lithium overdose. Ann Emerg Med 1991; 20:536-539.

Snyder BK & Clark RF: Effect of magnesium hydroxide administration on iron absorption after a supratherapeutic dose of ferrous sulfate in human volunteers: a randomized controlled trial. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 33:400-405.

Sobotka TJ, Whittaker P, & Sobotka JM: Neurobehavioral dysfunction associated with dietary iron overload. Physiol Behav 1996; 59:213-219.

Spencer IOB: Ferrous sulphate poisoning in children. Br Med J 1951; 2:1112-1117.

Sreenath TG, Gupta P, Sharma KK, et al: Lorazepam versus diazepam-phenytoin combination in the treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children: A randomized controlled trial. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2010; 14(2):162-168.

Stal P: Iron as a hepatotoxin. Dig Dis 1995; 13:205-222.

Stella M, Pinzello G, & Maggio A: Iron chelation with oral deferiprone in patients with thalassemia (letter). N Engl J Med 1998; 339:1712.

Stolbach A & Hoffman RS: Respiratory Principles. In: Nelson LS, Hoffman RS, Lewin NA, et al, eds. Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies, 9th ed. McGraw Hill Medical, New York, NY, 2011.

Strom RL, Schiller P, & Seeds AE: Fatal iron poisoning in a pregnant female. Minn Med 1976; 59:483-489.

TERIS : The Teratogen Information System. CD-ROM Version. University of Washington. Seattle, WA (Internet Version). Edition expires 1999; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Taalikka P, Makisalo H, & Hockerstedt K: Iron poisoning requiring liver transplantation. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1999; 37:409-410.

Tam AY, Chan YC, & Lau FL: A case series of accidental ingestion of hand warmer. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2008; 46(9):900-904.

Tamura T, Goldenberg RL, & Johnston KE: Serum ferritin - a predictor of early spontaneous preterm delivery. Ostet Gynecol 1996; 87:360-365.

Tarkka M, Anttila S, & Sutinen S: Bronchial stenosis after aspiration of an iron tablet. Chest 1988; 93:439-441.

Tenenbein M & Israels S: Early coagulopathy in severe iron poisoning. J Pediatr 1988; 113:695-697.

Tenenbein M & Yatscoff R: Total iron binding capacity (TIBC) in iron poisoning: Who needs it? (Abstract). Vet Human Toxicol 1989; 31:343.

Tenenbein M & Yatscoff RW: The total iron-binding capacity in iron poisoning -- is it useful?. Am J Dis Child 1991; 145:437-439.

Tenenbein M, Cohen S, & Sitar DS: Whole bowel irrigation as a decontamination procedure after acute drug overdose. Arch Int Med 1987; 147:905-907.

Tenenbein M, Kopelow ML, & De Sa DJ: Myocardial failure and shock in iron poisoning. Human Toxicol 1988; 7:281-284.

Tenenbein M, Kowalski S, & Sienko A: Pulmonary toxic effects of continuous deferoxamine administration in acute iron poisoning. Lancet 1992a; 339:699-701.

Tenenbein M, Kowalski S, & Sienko A: Pulmonary toxic effects of continuous desferrioxamine administration in acute iron poisoning. Lancet 1992; 339:699-701.

Tenenbein M, Littman C, & Stimpson RE: Gastrointestinal pathology in adult iron overdose. Clin Toxicol 1990; 28:311-320.

Tenenbein M: Benefits of parenteral deferoxamine for acute iron poisoning. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1996; 34(5):485-489.

Tenenbein M: Hepatotoxicity in acute iron poisoning. Clin Toxicol 2001; 39:721-726.

Tenenbein M: In efficacy of gastric emptying procedures. J Emerg Med 1985a; 3:133-136.

Tenenbein M: Inefficacy of gastric emptying procedures. J Emerg Med 1985; 3:133-136.

Tenenbein M: Iron overdose during pregnancy (Abstract). Vet Human Toxicol 1989a; 31:346.

Tenenbein M: Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of iron poisoning. Toxicol Ltrs 1998; 102-103:653-656.

Thomas RM & Skalicka AE: Successful pregnancy in transfusion-dependent thalassaemia. Arch Dis Child 1980; 55:572-574.

Thomson J: Ferrous sulphate poisoning. Br Med J 1950; 1:645-646.

Thomson J: Two cases of ferrous sulphate poisoning. Br Med J 1947; 1:640-641.

Tong TG & Banner W: Iron Poisoning. Pediatr Clin N Am 1986; 33:393-409.

Tourmann JL & Kaufmann R: Biopersistence of the mineral matter of coal mine dusts in silicotic human lungs: Is there a preferential release of iron?. Environ Health Perspect 1994; 102(Suppl 5):265-268.

Toyokuni SY & Sagripanti JL: Induction of oxidative single-strand and double-strand breaks in DNA by ferric citrate. Free Radical Biol Med 1993; 15:117-123.

Trallero EP, Cilla G, & Lopez-Lopateguic: Fatal septicemia caused by Yersinia enterocolitica in thalassemia major. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1986; 5:483-484.

Tran T, Wax JR, & Steinfeld JD: Acute intentional iron overdose in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 92:678-680.

Tran T, Wax JR, Philput C, et al: Intentional iron overdose in pregnancy--management and outcome. J Emerg Med 2000; 18(2):225-228.

Tricta F & Spino M: Iron chelation with oral deferiprone in patients with thalassemia (letter). N Engl J Med 1998; 339:1710.

Tseng YJ, Chen CH, Chen WK, et al: Hand warmer related corrosive injury. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2011; 49(9):870-871.

Turkay S, Tanzer F, & Gultekin A: The influence of maternal iron deficiency anaemia on the haemoglobin concentration of the infant. J Trop Pediatr 1995; 41:369-371.

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management: Protective Action Criteria (PAC) with AEGLs, ERPGs, & TEELs: Rev. 26 for chemicals of concern. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.hss.doe.gov/HealthSafety/WSHP/Chem_Safety/teel.html. As accessed 2011-06-27.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project : 11th Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/INDEXA5E1.HTM?objectid=32BA9724-F1F6-975E-7FCE50709CB4C932. As accessed 2011-06-27.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Discarded commercial chemical products, off-specification species, container residues, and spill residues thereof. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities 2010b; 40CFR(261.33, e-f):77-.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2011. Available from URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/index.cfm?fuseaction=iris.showSubstanceList&list_type=date. As accessed 2011-06-21.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of Radionuclides. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010a. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: The list of extremely hazardous substances and their threshold planning quantities (CAS Number Order). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010c. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-part355.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Part 1910 - Occupational safety and health standards (continued) Occupational Safety, and Health Administration's (OSHA) list of highly hazardous chemicals, toxics and reactives. Subpart Z - toxic and hazardous substances. CFR 2010 2010; Vol6(SEC1910):7-.

U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA): Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals. 29 CFR 2010 2010; 29(1910.119):348-.

United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Vinyl Acetate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6af&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

Urben PG: Bretherick's Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards, Volume 1, 5th ed, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England, 1995.

Vale JA, Kulig K, American Academy of Clinical Toxicology, et al: Position paper: Gastric lavage. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2004; 42:933-943.

Vale JA: Position Statement: gastric lavage. American Academy of Clinical Toxicology; European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1997; 35:711-719.

Valentine K, Mastropietro C, & Sarnaik AP: Infantile iron poisoning: challenges in diagnosis and management. Pediatr Crit Care Med 2009; 10(3):e31-e33.

Van Ameyde KJ & Tenenbein M: Whole bowel irrigation during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 160:646-647.

Venturelli J, Kwee Y, & Morris N: Gastrotomy in the management of acute iron poisoning. J Pediatr 1982; 100:768-769.

Vernon DD, Banner W Jr, & Dean JM: Hemodynamic effects of experimental iron poisoning. Ann Emerg Med 1989; 18:863-866.

Wallace KL, Curry SC, & LoVecchio F: Effect of magnesium hydroxide on iron absorption following simulated mild iron overdose in human subjects. Acad Emerg Med 1998; 5:961-965.

Wallack MK & Winkelstein A: Acute iron intoxication in an adult. JAMA 1974; 229:1333-1334.

Watts JA: Iron-mediated cardiotoxicity develops independently of extracellular hydroxyl radicals in isolated rat hearts. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 1999; 37:19-28.

Weiland J & Sherrow L: Hot Under the Collar. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2015; 53(7):730.

Weinberg ED: The role of iron in cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 1996; 5:19-36.

Westlin WF: Deferoxamine in the treatment of acute iron poisoning. Clinical experiences with 172 children. Clin Pediatr 1966; 5:531-535.

Whitten CF, Gibson GW, & Good MH: Studies in acute iron poisoning. Pediatrics 1965; 36:322-335.

Wians FH, Plickert NJ, & Heald JI: The modified "aca" method for serum iron quantification eliminates deferoxamine interference. Clin Chem 1988; 34:1513-1514.

Wilkins JR & Sinks T: Parental occupation and intracranial neoplasms of childhood: results of a case-control interview study. Am J Epidemiol 1990; 132:275-292.

Willson DF, Truwit JD, Conaway MR, et al: The adult calfactant in acute respiratory distress syndrome (CARDS) trial. Chest 2015; 148(2):356-364.

Wilson DF, Thomas NJ, Markovitz BP, et al: Effect of exogenous surfactant (calfactant) in pediatric acute lung injury. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005; 293:470-476.

Wolters JM, Smit M, & Zijlstra JG: Fatal unsuspected iron ingestion. Emerg Med Australas 2014; 26(2):204-205.

Wu ML, Tsai WJ, Ger J, et al: Clinical experience of acute ferric chloride poisoning. Vet Hum Toxicol 2003; 45(5):243-246.

Wu ML, Yang CC, & Ger J: A fatal case of acute ferric chloride poisoning. Vet Hum Toxicol 1998; 40:31-34.

Wurzelmann JI, Silver A, & Schreinemachers DM: Iron intake and the risk of colorectal cancer. Cancer epidemiol Biomark Prev 1996; 5:503-507.

Wythe ET, Osterloh JD, & Becker CE: The reliability of serum iron levels after deferoxamine treatment: an in vitro study. Vet Human Toxicol 1986; 28:478.

Xu ZY, Brown LM, & Pan GW: Cancer risks among iron and steel workers in Anshan, China .2. Case-control studies of lung and stomach cancer. Am J Ind Med 1996; 30:7-15.

Yano T, Obata Y, & Ishikawa G: Enhancing effect of high dietary iron on lung tumorigenesis in mice. Cancer Lett 1994; 76:57-62.

Yatscoff RW, Wayne EA, & Tenenbein M: An objective criterion for the cessation of deferoxamine therapy in the acutely iron poisoned patient. Clin Toxicol 1991; 29:1-10.

Yokel RA: Aluminum chelation: chemistry, clinical and experimental studies and the search for alternatives to desferrioxamine. J Toxicol Environ Health 1994; 41:131-174.

Yonker J, Banner W, & Picchioni A: Absorption characteristics of iron and deferoxamine onto charcoal. Vet Human Toxicol 1980; 22(Suppl 2):75.

Zenz C: Occupational Medicine, 3rd ed, Mosby, St Louis, MO, 1994.

FeedBack

IRON

Classification | Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents