HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
HAZARDTEXT ®
Information to help in the initial response for evaluating chemical incidents
 -IDENTIFICATION
SYNONYMS
HYDROGEN CHLORIDE ACIDE CHLORHYDRIQUE (French) ACIDO CLORHIDRICO (Spanish) ACIDO CLORIDRICO (Italian) ANHYDROUS HYDROCHLORIC ACID ANHYDROUS HYDROGEN CHLORIDE AQUEOUS HYDROGEN CHLORIDE CHLOORWATERSTOFF (Dutch) CHLORHYDRIC ACID CHLOROHYDRIC ACID CHLOROWODOR (Polish) CHLORURE D'HYDROGENE (French) CHLORURE D'HYDROGENE ANHYDRE (French) CHLORURO DE HIDROGENO (Spanish) CLORURO DE HIDROGENO ANHIDRO (Spanish) CHLORWASSERSTOF (German) HCl HYDROCHLORIC ACID HYDROCHLORIC ACID, ANHYDROUS HYDROCHLORIC ACID GAS HYDROCHLORIC ACID, SOLUTION HYDROCHLORIC ACID, SOLUTION, INHIBITED HYDROCHLORIDE HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, ANHYDROUS HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, AQUEOUS SOLUTION HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, REFRIGERATED LIQUID HYDROGEN CHLORIDE SOLUTION MURIATIC ACID SPIRITS OF SALT CHLOORWATERSTOF (DUTCH) CHLORWASSERSTOFF (GERMAN) HYDROGEN CHLORIDE (GAS ONLY) HYDROGEN CHLORIDE, REFRIGERATED LIQUID (CRYOGENIC LIQUID)
IDENTIFIERS
1789-Hydrochloric acid 1789-Hydrochloric acid, solution 1050-Hydrogen chloride, anhydrous 2186-Hydrogen chloride, refrigerated liquid
4930231 - hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid, spent) 4930230 - hydrochloric acid solution, inhibited 4930229 - hydrochloric acid mixture 4930228 - hydrochloric (muriatic) acid 4904270 - hydrochloric acid, anhydrous
SYNONYM REFERENCE
- (Hathaway et al, 1996; HSDB , 2001; Lewis, 2000; NIOSH , 2001; RTECS , 2001)
USES/FORMS/SOURCES
Anhydrous hydrogen chloride is utilized in polymerization, isomerization, alkylation, hydrochlorination, and nitration organic reactions, as well as in the production of vinyl chloride from acetylene, alkyl chlorides from olefins, and arsenious chloride from arsenious oxide. It is also used in the production of pharmaceutical hydrochlorides and chlorine, rubber, as a gaseous flux for babbiting operations, and in the leather tanning, electroplating, and food processing industries (AAR, 2000; ACGIH, 1991; (Bingham et al, 2001; Budavari, 1996; Lewis, 1993). Hydrogen chloride in aqueous solution (hydrochloric acid) is used in the neutralization of basic systems; as a pharmaceutical aid (acidifier; used in human and veterinary medicine); in oil and gas-well treatment; in removing scale from boilers and heat exchange equipment; in the production of chlorides; in tin and tantalum ore refining; as a laboratory reagent; as a catalyst and solvent in organic synthesis; in pickling and cleaning of metal products; in the hydrolyzing of starch and proteins; in the refining of sugar, oils, fats, and wax; and in the preparation of various food products. Additionally, it is sold to the public as 'muriatic acid' where it finds a variety of uses in the household and in construction (ACGIH, 1991; (Ashford, 1994; Budavari, 1996).
Hydrochloric acid is commercially available as a 31% or 35% w/w solution in water (Ashford, 1994). Hydrochloric acid is available in the following grades (HSDB , 2001): NF (National Formulary) Diluted (10%) USP (United States Pharmacopoeia) (35-38%) Technical (generally 18, 20, 22, 23 deg baume, which corresponds to approximately 23, 31, 35, 37% hydrogen chloride).
Hydrogen chloride is produced as a byproduct of dehydrochlorination reactions; during the reaction of hydrogen and chlorine; as a byproduct of sodium sulfate production when using the Hargraves process or Mannheim process; as a byproduct of the reaction between natural sodium chloride and sulfuric acid; as a byproduct of potassium sulfate production involving either salt formation or the Hargraves process; from waste gas production; and during the Meyer Process when sodium chloride reacts with sodium bisulfite (Ashford, 1994) Bingham et al, 2001; (HSDB , 2001).
SYNONYM EXPLANATION
- The term "hydrogen chloride" refers to the anhydrous gas while "hydrochloric acid" refers to an aqueous solution.
-CLINICAL EFFECTS
GENERAL CLINICAL EFFECTS
- USES: Anhydrous hydrogen chloride is used in the production of pharmaceutical hydrochlorides and chlorine, rubber, as a gaseous flux for babbiting operations. It is also used in the leather tanning, electroplating, and food processing industries. Hydrogen chloride in aqueous solution (hydrochloric acid) has many commercial and industrial uses.
- TOXICOLOGY: Acids cause coagulation necrosis. Hydrogen ions desiccate epithelial cells, causing edema, erythema, tissue sloughing and necrosis, with formation of ulcers and eschars.
- EPIDEMIOLOGY: Exposure is rare. Hydrogen chloride is typically available for industrial purposes.
Hydrogen chloride exposure is unusual; limited data regarding specific human toxicity following hydrogen chloride exposure is available. The following effects could be expected to occur, based on exposure data of other acids. MILD TO MODERATE ORAL TOXICITY: Patients with mild ingestions may only develop irritation or grade I (superficial hyperemia and edema) burns of the oropharynx, esophagus or stomach; acute or chronic complications are unlikely. Patients with moderate toxicity may develop grade II burns (superficial blisters, erosions and ulcerations) are at risk for subsequent stricture formation, particularly gastric outlet and esophageal. Some patients (particularly young children) may develop upper airway edema. SEVERE ORAL TOXICITY: May develop deep burns and necrosis of the gastrointestinal mucosa. Complications often include perforation (esophageal, gastric, rarely duodenal), fistula formation (tracheoesophageal, aortoesophageal), and gastrointestinal bleeding. Upper airway edema is common and often life threatening. Hypotension, tachycardia, tachypnea and, rarely, fever may develop. Other rare complications include metabolic acidosis, hemolysis, renal failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation, elevated liver enzymes, and cardiovascular collapse. Stricture formation (primarily gastric outlet and esophageal, less often oral) is likely to develop long term. Esophageal carcinoma is another long term complication. INHALATION EXPOSURE: Mild exposure may cause dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, cough and bronchospasm. Severe inhalation may cause upper airway edema and burns, hypoxia, stridor, pneumonitis, tracheobronchitis, and rarely acute lung injury or persistent pulmonary function abnormalities. The current NIOSH IMMEDIATELY DANGEROUS TO LIFE OR HEALTH (IDLH) air concentration for hydrogen chloride is 50 ppm. No significant effects have been seen with chronic exposure to low levels of gaseous hydrogen chloride. OCULAR EXPOSURE: Ocular exposure can produce severe conjunctival irritation and chemosis, corneal epithelial defects, limbal ischemia, permanent vision loss and in severe cases perforation. DERMAL EXPOSURE: A minor exposure can cause irritation and partial thickness burns. More prolonged or a high concentration exposure can cause full thickness burns. Complications may include cellulitis, sepsis, contractures, osteomyelitis and systemic toxicity.
- POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004)
TOXIC; inhalation, ingestion or contact (skin, eyes) with vapors, dusts or substance may cause severe injury, burns, or death. Reaction with water or moist air will release toxic, corrosive or flammable gases. Reaction with water may generate much heat which will increase the concentration of fumes in the air. Fire will produce irritating, corrosive and/or toxic gases. Runoff from fire control or dilution water may be corrosive and/or toxic and cause pollution.
- POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004)
TOXIC; may be fatal if inhaled, ingested or absorbed through skin. Vapors are extremely irritating and corrosive. Contact with gas or liquefied gas may cause burns, severe injury and/or frostbite. Fire will produce irritating, corrosive and/or toxic gases. Runoff from fire control may cause pollution.
ACUTE CLINICAL EFFECTS
TOXICOLOGY: Acids cause coagulation necrosis. Hydrogen ions desiccate epithelial cells, causing edema, erythema, tissue sloughing and necrosis, with formation of ulcers and eschars. EPIDEMIOLOGY: Exposure is rare. Hydrogen chloride is typically available for industrial purposes. MILD TO MODERATE ORAL TOXICITY: Patients with mild ingestions may only develop irritation or grade I (superficial hyperemia and edema) burns of the oropharynx, esophagus or stomach; acute or chronic complications are unlikely. Patients with moderate toxicity may develop grade II burns (superficial blisters, erosions and ulcerations) are at risk for subsequent stricture formation, particularly gastric outlet and esophageal. Some patients (particularly young children) may develop upper airway edema. SEVERE ORAL TOXICITY: May develop deep burns and necrosis of the gastrointestinal mucosa. Complications often include perforation (esophageal, gastric, rarely duodenal), fistula formation (tracheoesophageal, aortoesophageal), and gastrointestinal bleeding. Upper airway edema is common and often life threatening. Hypotension, tachycardia, tachypnea and, rarely, fever may develop. Other rare complications include metabolic acidosis, hemolysis, renal failure, disseminated intravascular coagulation, elevated liver enzymes, and cardiovascular collapse. Stricture formation (primarily gastric outlet and esophageal, less often oral) is likely to develop long term. Esophageal carcinoma is another long term complication. PREDICTIVE: The grade of mucosal injury at endoscopy is the strongest predictive factor for the occurrence of systemic and GI complications and mortality. Initial signs and symptoms may not reliably predict the extent of GI burns. INHALATION EXPOSURE: Mild exposure may cause dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, cough and bronchospasm. Severe inhalation may cause upper airway edema and burns, hypoxia, stridor, pneumonitis, tracheobronchitis, and rarely acute lung injury or persistent pulmonary function abnormalities. The current NIOSH IMMEDIATELY DANGEROUS TO LIFE OR HEALTH (IDLH) air concentration for hydrogen chloride is 50 ppm. No significant effects have been seen with chronic exposure to low levels of gaseous hydrogen chloride. OCULAR EXPOSURE: Ocular exposure can produce severe conjunctival irritation and chemosis, corneal epithelial defects, limbal ischemia, permanent vision loss and in severe cases perforation. DERMAL EXPOSURE: A minor exposure can cause irritation and partial thickness burns. More prolonged or a high concentration exposure can cause full thickness burns. Complications may include cellulitis, sepsis, contractures, osteomyelitis and systemic toxicity.
Metabolic acidosis occurred in all patients (n=21) who presented with gastrointestinal necrosis following ingestion of high concentration (24% to 32%) hydrochloric acid. The pH of each patient, upon presentation, was between 6.9 and 7.2 (Munoz et al, 2001).
HYPOTENSIVE EPISODE: Strong mineral acids exposure may produce circulatory collapse with clammy skin, weak and rapid pulse, and shallow respiration. Circulatory collapse is one of the most common immediate causes of death from overexposure (Gosselin et al, 1984).
CHEMICAL BURN: Hydrogen chloride is corrosive to the skin, producing severe burns, ulceration, and scarring (Sittig, 1985). Subcutaneous tissues may be affected, becoming blanched and bloodless (Sax, 1984). SKIN IRRITATION: Hydrogen chloride in lower concentrations is a primary irritant of the skin (RTECS , 1988). DERMATITIS: CHRONIC: Repeated exposure to low concentrations can produce dermatitis (Sittig, 1985; Hathaway et al, 1996; HSDB , 1992).
BURN: Hydrochloric acid can cause severe burns of the stomach with pain, nausea and vomiting (Hathaway et al, 1996). Ingestion may result in corrosion of mucous membranes, esophagus, stomach, and duodenum (Munoz et al, 2001; HSDB , 2001). Esophageal and duodenal necrosis can be fatal following oral exposure (Munoz et al, 2001; Sittig, 1985). CAUSTIC ESOPHAGEAL INJURY: Esophageal dilation and atony have been reported following ingestion of muriatic acid (Muhletaler et al, 1980). GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE: Vomiting of fresh blood has occasionally been seen in patients who have ingested strong acid (Gosselin et al, 1984) ESOPHAGITIS: Mucosal and submucosal edema of the esophagus has been seen on esophagograms following ingestion of muriatic acid (Muhletaler et al, 1980). DELAYED EFFECTS: ESOPHAGEAL STRICTURE: Strictures may follow from several weeks to several years later in patients who survive an acute episode of ingesting strong acid (Muhletaler et al, 1980; Gosselin et al, 1984).
RENAL FAILURE SYNDROME: Kidney failure and decreased urine output can occur after several hours of uncorrected circulatory collapse (Gosselin et al, 1984). NEPHRITIS: Ingestion of hydrogen chloride may cause nephritis (HSDB , 1992).
HEAD DENTAL DISCOLORATION/EROSION: CHRONIC: Discoloration of exposed incisors and erosion of dental enamel can occur from prolonged or chronic exposure to hydrogen chloride (Bingham et al, 2001; Finkel, 1983).
EYES NOSE ULCERATION: Occasionally, ulceration of the nose can occur (Hathaway et al, 1996). BLEEDING: Exposure to mists of heated metal pickling solutions may cause nose bleeds (Bingham et al, 2001). IRRITATION: Hydrogen chloride is a strong irritant of the mucous membranes and upper respiratory tract (Hathaway et al, 1996).
THROAT NECROSIS: Esophageal necrosis can be fatal following oral exposure (Sittig, 1985). ULCERATION: Ulceration and bleeding of the oral mucosa, throat, and larynx can occur (Hathaway et al, 1996). IRRITATION: Acute exposure to hydrogen chloride can cause coughing, burning of the throat, and a choking sensation (Hathaway et al, 1996). Acute exposures over 5 ppm can be irritating to the throat; 35 ppm was irritating in a short exposure, and 50 to 100 ppm was barely tolerable for 1 hour (ACGIH, 1986).
PULMONARY EDEMA: Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema can occur in severe cases of acute exposure to hydrogen chloride (Hathaway et al, 1996). IRRITATION: Inhalation of large amounts of hydrogen chloride can be corrosive to the respiratory tract, with structural damage and injury to the lungs (Proctor & Hughes, 1978) ACGIH, 1986; CHRIS, 1985). LARYNGISMUS: In severe overexposures, laryngeal spasm can occur (Hathaway et al, 1996). Inhalation can cause glottic edema (Sittig, 1985). MILD EXPOSURE: Mild exposures may produce overt symptoms resembling acute viral upper respiratory infection but with absence of fever, myalgias and lymphocytosis (Proctor & Hughes, 1978). BRONCHITIS: CHRONIC: Chronic exposure may be associated with chronic bronchitis (ACGIH, 1986).
CHRONIC CLINICAL EFFECTS
- No serious effects have been associated with chronic occupational exposure to low hydrogen chloride airborne concentrations (Finkel, 1983). Erosion of dental enamel, nasal ulceration, dermatitis, and chronic bronchitis can occur with chronic exposure to higher concentrations (HSDB; (Hathaway et al, 1991; ACGIH, 1992). Because hydrogen chloride is a strong mineral acid, significant acute or chronic exposure may produce chlorosis and hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis.
-FIRST AID
FIRST AID AND PREHOSPITAL TREATMENT
-MEDICAL TREATMENT
LIFE SUPPORT
- Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.
SUMMARY
- FIRST AID - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004)
Move victim to fresh air. Call 911 or emergency medical service. Give artificial respiration if victim is not breathing. Do not use mouth-to-mouth method if victim ingested or inhaled the substance; give artificial respiration with the aid of a pocket mask equipped with a one-way valve or other proper respiratory medical device. Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult. Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes. In case of contact with substance, immediately flush skin or eyes with running water for at least 20 minutes. For minor skin contact, avoid spreading material on unaffected skin. Keep victim warm and quiet. Effects of exposure (inhalation, ingestion or skin contact) to substance may be delayed. Ensure that medical personnel are aware of the material(s) involved and take precautions to protect themselves.
- FIRST AID - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004)
Move victim to fresh air. Call 911 or emergency medical service. Give artificial respiration if victim is not breathing. Do not use mouth-to-mouth method if victim ingested or inhaled the substance; give artificial respiration with the aid of a pocket mask equipped with a one-way valve or other proper respiratory medical device. Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult. Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes. In case of contact with liquefied gas, thaw frosted parts with lukewarm water. In case of contact with substance, immediately flush skin or eyes with running water for at least 20 minutes. In case of contact with Hydrogen fluoride, anhydrous (UN1052), flush skin and eyes with water for 5 minutes; then, for skin exposures rub on a calcium/jelly combination; for eyes flush with a water/calcium solution for 15 minutes. Keep victim warm and quiet. Keep victim under observation. Effects of contact or inhalation may be delayed. Ensure that medical personnel are aware of the material(s) involved and take precautions to protect themselves.
FIRST AID EYE EXPOSURE (LIQUID EXPOSURE) - If hydrogen chloride solution contacts the eyes, immediately wash the eyes with large amounts of water, occasionally lifting the lower and upper lids. Get medical attention immediately. Primary eye protection (spectacles or goggles), as defined by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), should be used when working with this chemical. Face shields should only be worn over primary eye protection. Contact lens use is not recommended when working with this chemical. If contact lenses are worn, then appropriate eye and face protection devices must be used. OSHA emphasizes that dusty and/or chemical environments may represent an additional hazard to contact lens wearers. COMPRESSED GAS EXPOSURE - If eye tissue is frozen, seek medical attention immediately; if tissue is not frozen, immediately and thoroughly flush the eyes with large amounts of water for at least 15 minutes, occasionally lifting the lower and upper eyelids. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist, get medical attention as soon as possible.
DERMAL EXPOSURE (LIQUID EXPOSURE) - If hydrogen chloride solution contacts the skin, immediately flush the contaminated skin with water. If this chemical penetrates the clothing, immediately remove the clothing and flush the skin with water. Get medical attention promptly. COMPRESSED GAS EXPOSURE - If frostbite has occurred, seek medical attention immediately; do NOT rub the affected areas or flush them with water. In order to prevent further tissue damage, do NOT attempt to remove frozen clothing from frostbitten areas. If frostbite has NOT occurred, immediately and thoroughly wash contaminated skin with soap and water.
INHALATION EXPOSURE - Move the exposed person to fresh air at once. If breathing has stopped, perform artificial respiration. Keep the affected person warm and at rest. Get medical attention as soon as possible. ORAL EXPOSURE - If this hydrogen chloride solution has been swallowed, get medical attention immediately. TARGET ORGANS - Eyes, skin and respiratory system (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007).
INHALATION EXPOSURE INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm. If bronchospasm and wheezing occur, consider treatment with inhaled sympathomimetic agents. ACUTE LUNG INJURY: Maintain ventilation and oxygenation and evaluate with frequent arterial blood gases and/or pulse oximetry monitoring. Early use of PEEP and mechanical ventilation may be needed. Carefully observe patients with inhalation exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
DERMAL EXPOSURE DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999). If frostbite has occurred, DO NOT rub the affected areas, DO NOT flush affected areas with water, or attempt to remove clothing. PREHOSPITAL Rewarming of a localized area should only be considered if the risk of refreezing is unlikely. Avoid rubbing the frozen area which may cause further damage to the area (Grieve et al, 2011; Hallam et al, 2010).
REWARMING Do not institute rewarming unless complete rewarming can be assured; refreezing thawed tissue increases tissue damage. Place affected area in a water bath with a temperature of 40 to 42 degrees Celsius for 15 to 30 minutes until thawing is complete. The bath should be large enough to permit complete immersion of the injured part, avoiding contact with the sides of the bath. A whirlpool bath would be ideal. Some authors suggest a mild antibacterial (ie, chlorhexidine, hexachlorophene or povidone-iodine) be added to the bath water. Tissues should be thoroughly rewarmed and pliable; the skin will appear a red-purple color (Grieve et al, 2011; Hallam et al, 2010; Murphy et al, 2000). Correct systemic hypothermia which can cause cold diuresis due to suppression of antidiuretic hormone; consider IV fluids (Grieve et al, 2011). Rewarming may be associated with increasing acute pain, requiring narcotic analgesics. For severe frostbite, clinical trials have shown that pentoxifylline, a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, can enhance tissue viability by increasing blood flow and reducing platelet activity (Hallam et al, 2010).
WOUND CARE Digits should be separated by sterile absorbent cotton; no constrictive dressings should be used. Protective dressings should be changed twice per day. Perform twice daily hydrotherapy for 30 to 45 minutes in warm water at 40 degrees Celsius. This helps debride devitalized tissue and maintain range of motion. Keep the area warm and dry between treatments (Hallam et al, 2010; Murphy et al, 2000). The injured extremities should be elevated and should not be allowed to bear weight. In patients at risk for infection of necrotic tissue, prophylactic antibiotics and tetanus toxoid have been recommended by some authors (Hallam et al, 2010; Murphy et al, 2000). Non-tense clear blisters should be left intact due to the risk of infection; tense or hemorrhagic blisters may be carefully aspirated in a setting where aseptic technique is provided (Hallam et al, 2010). Further surgical debridement should be delayed until mummification demarcation has occurred (60 to 90 days). Spontaneous amputation may occur. Analgesics may be required during the rewarming phase; however, patients with severe pain should be evaluated for vasospasm. IMAGING: Arteriography and noninvasive vascular techniques (e.g., plain radiography, laser Doppler studies, digital plethysmography, infrared thermography, isotope scanning), have been useful in evaluating the extent of vasospasm after thawing and assessing whether debridement is needed (Hallam et al, 2010). In cases of severe frostbite, Technetium 99 (triple phase scanning) and MRI angiography have been shown to be the most useful to assess injury and determine the extent or need for surgical debridement (Hallam et al, 2010). TOPICAL THERAPY: Topical aloe vera may decrease tissue destruction and should be applied every 6 hours (Murphy et al, 2000). IBUPROFEN THERAPY: Ibuprofen, a thromboxane inhibitor, may help limit inflammatory damage and reduce tissue loss (Grieve et al, 2011; Murphy et al, 2000). DOSE: 400 mg orally every 12 hours is recommended (Hallam et al, 2010). THROMBOLYTIC THERAPY: Thrombolysis (intra-arterial or intravenous thrombolytic agents) may be beneficial in those patients at risk to lose a digit or a limb, if done within the first 24 hours of exposure. The use of tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) to clear microvascular thromboses can restore arterial blood flow, but should be accompanied by close monitoring including angiography or technetium scanning to evaluate the injury and to evaluate the effects of t-PA administration. Potential risk of the procedure includes significant tissue edema that can lead to a rise in interstitial pressures resulting in compartment syndrome (Grieve et al, 2011). CONTROVERSIAL: Adjunct pharmacological agents (ie, heparin, vasodilators, prostacyclins, prostaglandin synthetase inhibitors, dextran) are controversial and not routinely recommended. The role of hyperbaric oxygen therapy, sympathectomy remains unclear (Grieve et al, 2011). CHRONIC PAIN: Vasomotor dysfunction can produce chronic pain. Amitriptyline has been used in some patients; some patients may need a referral for pain management. Inability to tolerate the cold (in the affected area) has been observed following a single episode of frostbite (Hallam et al, 2010). MORBIDITIES: Frostbite can produce localized osteoporosis and possible bone loss following a severe case. These events may take a year or more to develop. Children may be at greater risk to develop more severe events (ie, early arthritis) (Hallam et al, 2010).
EYE EXPOSURE CAUSTIC EYE DECONTAMINATION: Immediately irrigate each affected eye with copious amounts of water or sterile 0.9% saline for about 30 minutes. Irrigating volumes up to 20 L or more have been used to neutralize the pH. After this initial period of irrigation, the corneal pH may be checked with litmus paper and a brief external eye exam performed. Continue direct copious irrigation with sterile 0.9% saline until the conjunctival fornices are free of particulate matter and returned to pH neutrality (pH 7.4). Once irrigation is complete, a full eye exam should be performed with careful attention to the possibility of perforation. EYE ASSESSMENT: The extent of eye injury (degree of corneal opacification and perilimbal whitening) may not be apparent for 48 to 72 hours after the burn. If frostbite of the eyes has occurred, DO NOT flush with water; early ophthalmologic consultation should be obtained.
ORAL EXPOSURE Esophageal or gastrointestinal tract burns may occur after ingestion. The role of gastric decontamination is unclear. Immediate dilution with water or milk might be beneficial. MUCOSAL DECONTAMINATION: If no respiratory compromise is present, administer milk or water as soon as possible after ingestion. The exact ideal amount is unknown; no more than 8 ounces (240 mL) in adults and 4 ounces (120 mL) in children is recommended to minimize the risk of vomiting. Patients should not be forced to drink after ingestion of an acid, nor should they be allowed to drink larger volumes since this may induce vomiting, and thereby re-exposure of the injured tissues to the corrosive acid. Dilution may only be helpful if performed in the first seconds to minutes after ingestion. GASTRIC DECONTAMINATION: Ipecac contraindicated. Activated charcoal is not recommended as it may interfere with endoscopy and will not reduce injury to GI mucosa. Consider insertion of a small, flexible nasogastric or orogastric tube to suction gastric contents after recent large ingestion of a strong acid; the risk of further mucosal injury or iatrogenic esophageal perforation must be weighed against potential benefits of removing any remaining acid from the stomach. ENDOSCOPY: Early endoscopy allows patients without gastrointestinal injury to be medically cleared, and provides important prognostic information in patients who do have varying degrees of gastrointestinal burns. In addition, it facilitates the safe placement of enteral feeding tubes thereby shortening the period of time that patients with burns are without enteral nutritional support. Endoscopy should be performed within the first 24 hours post-ingestion, and should be avoided from 2 days to 2 weeks post-ingestion since wound tensile strength is lowest and the risk of perforation highest during this time. Endoscopy is indicated for all adults with deliberate ingestion or any signs or symptoms attributable to ingestion, and for children with stridor, vomiting, or drooling. Consider endoscopy in children with dysphagia, refusal to swallow, significant oral burns, or abdominal pain. If second or third degree burns are found, follow 10 to 20 days later with barium swallow or esophagram. SURGICAL OPTIONS: Initially, if severe esophageal burns are found a string may be placed in the stomach to facilitate later dilation. Insertion of a specialized nasogastric tube after confirmation of a circumferential burn may prevent strictures. Dilation is indicated after 2 to 4 weeks if strictures are confirmed; if unsuccessful, either colonic intraposition or gastric tube placement may be performed. Consider early laparotomy in patients with severe esophageal and/or gastric burns. Do not give sodium bicarbonate in an attempt to neutralize the acid, as this can result in an exothermic reaction and worsen the burn.
-RANGE OF TOXICITY
MINIMUM LETHAL EXPOSURE
Concentrations of 1300 to 2000 ppm are fatal to humans within a few minutes (Harbison, 1998; CGA, 1999). Minimum lethal exposures in humans ranged from 3000 ppm for 5 minutes to 1300 ppm for 30 and 81 minutes.
MAXIMUM TOLERATED EXPOSURE
Workers found exposure to between 50 and 100 ppm hydrogen chloride for one hour as barely tolerable. Short exposures to 35 ppm caused throat irritation, and 10 ppm was the maximum concentration allowable for prolonged exposures. Any level above 5 ppm may be fairly characterized as disagreeable (ACGIH, 1991; (Bingham et al, 2001; Hathaway et al, 1996). The OSHA PEL (permissible exposure limit) for hydrogen chloride is 5 ppm or 7 mg/m(3) (HSDB, 2006). According to the World Health Organization, 45 mg/m(3) (30 ppm) is the upper limit of safety for man. However, if this exposure were continued daily at periods longer than one month, even this value may be unsafe (HSDB , 2001). CARCINOGENICITY RATINGS:
- Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS7647-01-0 :
ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A4 ; Listed as: Hydrogen chloride EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): Not Assessed under the IRIS program. ; Listed as: Hydrogen chloride IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): 3 ; Listed as: Hydrochloric acid 3 : The agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category.
NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Not Listed ; Listed as: Hydrogen chloride MAK (DFG, 2002): Not Listed NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): Not Listed
TOXICITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT VALUES
- EPA Risk Assessment Values for CAS7647-01-0 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011):
Oral: Inhalation: Unit Risk: RfC: 2x10(-2) mg/m3
Drinking Water:
References: Hathaway et al, 1996 Lewis, 2000 OHM/TADS, 2001 RTECS, 2001 LC50- (INHALATION)MOUSE: LC50- (INHALATION)RAT: 2350 ppm for 60M (OHM/TADS, 2001) 1322 ppm for 60M (OHM/TADS, 2001) 3124 ppm for 1H -- iritis and other changes in sense organs
LCLo- (INHALATION)GUINEA_PIG: LCLo- (INHALATION)HUMAN: 1300 ppm for 30M 3000 ppm for 5M
LCLo- (INHALATION)RABBIT: LD50- (INTRAPERITONEAL)MOUSE: 40142 mcg/kg 1449 mg/kg (Lewis, 2000)
LD50- (ORAL)RABBIT: LDLo- (ORAL)HUMAN: TCLo- (INHALATION)RAT: 1D pre, 450 mg/m(3) for 1H -- fetotoxicity; homeostasis (Lewis, 2000) 685 mcg/m(3) for 24H/84D - continuous -- muscle contraction/spasticity; urine compositional changes; true chloinesterase
References: Hathaway et al, 1996 Lewis, 2000 OHM/TADS, 2001 RTECS, 2001 LC50- (INHALATION)MOUSE: 11,238 ppm for 5M (OHM/TADS, 2001) 2142 ppm for 30M (OHM/TADS, 2001)
LC50- (INHALATION)RAT: 31,008 ppm for 5M (OHM/TADS, 2001) 5666 ppm for 30M (OHM/TADS, 2001)
References: Hathaway et al, 1996 Lewis, 2000 OHM/TADS, 2001 RTECS, 2001 LC50- (INHALATION)MOUSE: 13,750 ppm for 5M (OHM/TADS, 2001) 2644 ppm for 30M (OHM/TADS, 2001)
LC50- (INHALATION)RAT: 40,898 ppm for 5M (OHM/TADS, 2001) 4701 ppm for 30M (OHM/TADS, 2001)
References: Hathaway et al, 1996 Lewis, 2000 OHM/TADS, 2001 RTECS, 2001 LC50- (INHALATION)MOUSE: LC50- (INHALATION)RAT: LDLo- (INHALATION)MOUSE: LDLo- (INHALATION)RAT: 15,250-32,250 ppm for 5M (Hathaway et al, 1996) <3000 ppm for 30M (Hathaway et al, 1996)
References: Hathaway et al, 1996 Lewis, 2000 OHM/TADS, 2001 RTECS, 2001 LC50- (INHALATION)MOUSE: LC50- (INHALATION)RAT:
CALCULATIONS
-STANDARDS AND LABELS
WORKPLACE STANDARDS
- ACGIH TLV Values for CAS7647-01-0 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):
Editor's Note: The listed values are recommendations or guidelines developed by ACGIH(R) to assist in the control of health hazards. They should only be used, interpreted and applied by individuals trained in industrial hygiene. Before applying these values, it is imperative to read the introduction to each section in the current TLVs(R) and BEI(R) Book and become familiar with the constraints and limitations to their use. Always consult the Documentation of the TLVs(R) and BEIs(R) before applying these recommendations and guidelines.
- AIHA WEEL Values for CAS7647-01-0 (AIHA, 2006):
- NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS7647-01-0 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):
- OSHA PEL Values for CAS7647-01-0 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):
- OSHA List of Highly Hazardous Chemicals, Toxics, and Reactives for CAS7647-01-0 (U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2010):
Threshold Quantity, in pounds:5000 Threshold Quantity, in pounds:5000
ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS
- EPA CERCLA, Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities for CAS7647-01-0 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):
Listed as: Hydrochloric acid Final Reportable Quantity, in pounds (kilograms): Additional Information: Listed as: Hydrogen chloride Final Reportable Quantity, in pounds (kilograms): Additional Information:
- EPA CERCLA, Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities, Radionuclides for CAS7647-01-0 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):
- EPA RCRA Hazardous Waste Number for CAS7647-01-0 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010b):
- EPA SARA Title III, Extremely Hazardous Substance List for CAS7647-01-0 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):
Listed as: Hydrogen Chloride (gas only) Reportable Quantity, in pounds: 5000 Threshold Planning Quantity, in pounds: Note(s): f f: Chemicals on the original list that do not meet toxicity criteria but because of their acute lethality, high production volume and known risk are considered chemicals of concern ("Other chemicals"). (November 17, 1986, and February 15, 1990.)
- EPA SARA Title III, Community Right-to-Know for CAS7647-01-0 (40 CFR 372.65, 2006; 40 CFR 372.28, 2006):
Listed as: Hydrochloric acid (acid aerosols including mists, vapors, gas, fog, and other airborne forms of any particle size) Effective Date for Reporting Under 40 CFR 372.30: 1/1/87 Lower Thresholds for Chemicals of Special Concern under 40 CFR 372.28:
- DOT List of Marine Pollutants for CAS7647-01-0 (49 CFR 172.101 - App. B, 2005):
- EPA TSCA Inventory for CAS7647-01-0 (EPA, 2005):
SHIPPING REGULATIONS
- DOT -- Table of Hazardous Materials and Special Provisions for UN/NA Number 1789 (49 CFR 172.101, 2005):
- DOT -- Table of Hazardous Materials and Special Provisions for UN/NA Number 1050 (49 CFR 172.101, 2005):
- DOT -- Table of Hazardous Materials and Special Provisions for UN/NA Number 2186 (49 CFR 172.101, 2005):
- ICAO International Shipping Name for UN1789 (ICAO, 2002):
- ICAO International Shipping Name for UN1050 (ICAO, 2002):
- ICAO International Shipping Name for UN2186 (ICAO, 2002):
LABELS
- NFPA Hazard Ratings for CAS7647-01-0 (NFPA, 2002):
-HANDLING AND STORAGE
SUMMARY
HANDLING
- Rubber gloves and a self-contained breathing apparatus should be worn by workers handling hydrogen chloride (ITI, 1995).
- According to 49 CFR 171.2: "No person may transport, offer or accept a hazardous material for transportation in commerce unless that material is properly classed, described, packaged, marked, labeled, and in condition for shipment as required or authorized by...the hazardous materials regulations (49 CFR 171 to 177)" (HSDB , 2001)
- "Wherever possible acids should be pumped through sealed systems to prevent all danger of contact. Wherever individual containers have to be transported or decanted, the appropirate equipment should be employed and only experienced persons allowed to undertake the work. Decanting should be done by means of special syphons, transfer pumps, or drum or carboy tilting cradles and so on" (ILO , 1998).
- Do not add water to concentrated acid. To lower the concentration of acid, it should be slowly added to water (ILO , 1998).
STORAGE
Anhydrous hydrogen chloride is shipped in steel cylinders. All fittings, valves, etc., should be constructed of stainless, cast, or mild steel. Aqueous solutions are shipped in glass bottles as well as carboys, and in rubber-lined tankers (AAR, 2000; (CGA, 1999; NFPA, 1997; OHM/TADS , 2001). Protect containers from damage (ITI, 1995; OHM/TADS , 2001). Do not subject cylinders to temperatures abouve 52 degrees C (HSDB , 2001). Containers should be tightly closed and stored far from heat in a cool, well-ventilated area (Sittig, 1991).
- ROOM/CABINET RECOMMENDATIONS
This compound should be stored in a cool, dry, well-ventilated location with a cement floor. It should not be subjected to direct sunlight (HSDB , 2001; ITI, 1995; NFPA, 1997). For hydrochloric acid, the storage temperature should be ambient, and venting should be open during shipment (CHRIS , 2001). For hydrogen chloride, the storage temperature should ambient or lower, and safety relief venting should be used during shipment (CHRIS , 2001). If stored in large quantities, hydrochloric acid should be surrounded by curbs or sills so that the acid can be contained should leakage occur (ILO , 1998). Provide self-contained respiratory equipment and a fire hydrant outside the storage premises for use during emergency or rescue situations (ILO , 1998).
Isolate hydrogen chloride from heat, direct sunlight, active metals (zinc, potassium, sodium), amines, alkalies, brass, copper, hydroxides; organic materials, and oxidizers (especially nitric acid and chlorates) (HSDB, 2000; (NFPA, 1997; NIOSH , 2001; OHM/TADS , 2001; Sittig, 1991). Dowicil 100 undergoes chemical decomposition when exposed to hydrogen chloride (NFPA, 1997). Hydrogen chloride is incompatible with the following: Acetic anhydride Aliphatic amines Alkanolamines Alkylene oxides Amides 2-Aminoethanol Ammonia Ammonium hydroxide Aromatic amines Bases Calcium phosphide Chlorosulfonic acid Ethylene diamine Ethyleneimine Epichlorohydrin Isocyanates Metal acetylides Oleum Organic anhydrides Strong oxidizers Perchloric acid 3-Propiolactone Sodium hydroxide Sulfuric acid Uranium phosphide Vinyl acetate Vinylidene fluoride
For more information, please refer to the "Reactivity Hazard" section of this document.
-PERSONAL PROTECTION
SUMMARY
- RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004)
Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Wear chemical protective clothing that is specifically recommended by the manufacturer. It may provide little or no thermal protection. Structural firefighters' protective clothing provides limited protection in fire situations ONLY; it is not effective in spill situations where direct contact with the substance is possible.
- RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004)
Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Wear chemical protective clothing that is specifically recommended by the manufacturer. It may provide little or no thermal protection. Structural firefighters' protective clothing provides limited protection in fire situations ONLY; it is not effective in spill situations where direct contact with the substance is possible.
- Avoid breathing vapors of this compound. Appropriate acid-resistant personal protective clothing should be worn to prevent contact with aqueous solutions of this substance. Contact with the highly compressed gas may cause frostbite. If skin contact with the liquid occurs, washing should be done immediately. For ocular contact, irrigate eyes with water. Wet or contaminated clothing should be quickly removed. There is no specific recommendation that workers should change into uncontaminated clothing before leaving the job site (AAR, 2000; (HSDB , 2001; NIOSH , 2001).
- AAR (2000) reports that the following are compatible protective equipment construction materials: Clorinated polyethylene, natural rubber, nitrile rubber, nitrile rubber/polyvinyl chloride, neoprene, and polyvinyl chloride.
- Anywhere this compound is frequently used, showers and eyewash equipment should be provided in case of emergency (HSDB , 2001; NIOSH , 2001).
EYE/FACE PROTECTION
- Appropriate eye protection should be worn to prevent contact with the liquid or solutions of this compound. Contact may cause tissue damage due to frostbite or corrosion. Eyewash fountains must be provided (NIOSH , 2001).
- Do not wear contact lenses while working with this chemical (NIOSH , 2001).
RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
- Refer to "Recommendations for respirator selection" in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards on TOMES Plus(R) for respirator information.
- A positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus should be worn in emergency response situations (NFPA, 1997).
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
- CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. Search results for CAS 7647-01-0.
ENGINEERING CONTROLS
- In any area where persons may come into contact with hydrogen chloride, eyewash fountains should be provided (Chemsoft(R) , 1996).
-PHYSICAL HAZARDS
FIRE HAZARD
Editor's Note: Information from more than one emergency response guide is associated with this material. POTENTIAL FIRE OR EXPLOSION HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004) Non-combustible, substance itself does not burn but may decompose upon heating to produce corrosive and/or toxic fumes. Vapors may accumulate in confined areas (basement, tanks, hopper/tank cars etc.). Substance will react with water (some violently), releasing corrosive and/or toxic gases. Contact with metals may evolve flammable hydrogen gas. Containers may explode when heated or if contaminated with water.
POTENTIAL FIRE OR EXPLOSION HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004) Some may burn, but none ignite readily. Vapors from liquefied gas are initially heavier than air and spread along ground. Some of these materials may react violently with water. Cylinders exposed to fire may vent and release toxic and/or corrosive gas through pressure relief devices. Containers may explode when heated. Ruptured cylinders may rocket.
Hydrogen chloride is a nonflammable gas (NFPA, 1997; NIOSH , 2001). This compound in contact with metals can produce highly flammable hydrogen gas (CHRIS , 2001). NOTE: Hydrogen chloride is a combustion product of vinyl chloride monomer or polymer. It can be one of the major constituents of smoke from fires involving PVC plastic, with concentrations near the fire reaching 3000 to 8500 ppm (Dyer & Esch, 1976; Harbison, 1998) O'Mara et al, 1971). A self-contained breathing apparatus with a chemical protective suit should be worn in fire situations (CHRIS , 2001).
- FLAMMABILITY CLASSIFICATION
- NFPA Flammability Rating for CAS7647-01-0 (NFPA, 2002):
- FIRE CONTROL/EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
- FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004)
- SMALL FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004)
- SMALL FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004)
- LARGE FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004)
Water spray, fog or alcohol-resistant foam. Move containers from fire area if you can do it without risk. Use water spray or fog; do not use straight streams. Dike fire control water for later disposal; do not scatter the material.
- LARGE FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004)
Water spray, fog or regular foam. Move containers from fire area if you can do it without risk. Do not get water inside containers. Damaged cylinders should be handled only by specialists.
- TANK OR CAR/TRAILER LOAD FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004)
Fight fire from maximum distance or use unmanned hose holders or monitor nozzles. Do not get water inside containers. Cool containers with flooding quantities of water until well after fire is out. Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety devices or discoloration of tank. ALWAYS stay away from tanks engulfed in fire.
- TANK FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004)
Fight fire from maximum distance or use unmanned hose holders or monitor nozzles. Cool containers with flooding quantities of water until well after fire is out. Do not direct water at source of leak or safety devices; icing may occur. Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety devices or discoloration of tank. ALWAYS stay away from tanks engulfed in fire.
- NFPA Extinguishing Methods for CAS7647-01-0 (NFPA, 2002):
- If this compound is involved in a fire, use an extinguishing agent suitable for the surrounding materials which are fueling combustion. Water spray, in flooding quantities, can be utilized to cool fire-exposed structures/containers and knock down vapors. Apply water from as far away as is possible (AAR, 2000; (NFPA, 1997).
- A chemical protective suit and a self-contained breathing apparatus should be worn by any individual fighting fires involving hydrogen chloride (HSDB , 2001).
EXPLOSION HAZARD
- Pressurized shipping or storage containers may of hydrogen chloride may rocket or violently rupture upon prolonged exposure to intense heat or fire. This will release irritating and toxic vapors (AAR, 2000; (CHRIS , 2001).
- See the REACTIVITY HAZARD section for full information.
DUST/VAPOR HAZARD
- Poisonous chloride fumes are produced when hydrochloric acid is heated to decomposition; flammable hydrogen is also produced (HSDB , 2001; Lewis, 2000).
REACTIVITY HAZARD
- Hydrogen chloride is incompatible with alkalis (reacts vigorously), amines, copper and alloys (eg, brass), hydroxides, zinc (galvanized materials), lithium silicide (incandescense), sulfuric acid (increase in temperature and pressure), and organic materials (AAR, 2000; (NFPA, 1997; NIOSH , 2001).
- This compound evolves large amounts of heat when dissolved in water or when reacting with many other substances (CHRIS, 1996; (NIOSH , 2001; NFPA, 1997).
- It reacts with oxidizers releasing chlorine gas (NFPA, 1997).
- This compound is highly corrosive when in solution (especially to most metals except: gold, mercury, platinum, silver, and tantalum)(HSDB , 2001; Lewis, 2000; NIOSH , 2001). The anhydrous gas is not corrosive according to HSDB (2001). However, Lewis (2000) and Budavari (1996) describe the gas as being corrosive.
When aqueous solutions react with most metals very flammable hydrogen gas is produced (Ashford, 1994; Bingham et al, 2001; NFPA, 1997).
- Hydrogen chloride gas is emitted when this compound is in contact with sulfuric acid (Lewis, 2000).
- Adsorption of hydrochloric acid onto silicon dioxide results in a exothermic reaction (Lewis, 2000).
- Hydrogen chloride causes aldehydes and epoxides to violently polymerize (Bingham et al, 2001).
- Hydrogen chloride or hydrochloric acid, in contact with the following, can cause explosion, ignition on contact, or other violent/vigorous reaction (Bingham et al, 2001; ITI, 1995; HSDB , 2001; Lewis, 2000; NFPA, 1997; Urben, 2000):
Acetic anhydride Alcohols + hydrogen cyanide Aldehydes (violent polymerization) Aluminum Aluminum phosphide Aluminum-titanium alloys (with HCl vapor) 2-Amino ethanol Ammonium Ammonium hydroxide 1,4-Benzoquinone diimine Calcium acetylide (incandescence upon warming) Calcium carbide Calcium phosphide Carbon tetrachloride + silver perchlorate (produces trichlormethyl perchlorate) Cesium acetylene carbide Cesium carbide Cesium telluroacylates Chlorine + dinitroanilines (evolves gas) Chloroacetaldehyde oxime Chlorosulfonic acid Cyanogen chloride (when catalyzed by HCl) 1,1-Difluoroethylene Dinitroanilines Epoxides (violent polymerization) Ethylene Ethylene diamine Ethyl 2-formylpropionate oxime (when generated by using HCl as a catalyst) Ethylene imine Fluorine HClO4 Hexalithium disilicide Hydrogen peroxide Lithium silicide Metal acetylides or carbides Magnesium boride Methyl vinyl ether Mercuric sulfate Nitric acid + glycerol Oleum Perchloric acid Potassium Potassium permanganate beta-Propiolactone Propylene oxide Rubidium acetylide Rubidium carbide Rubidium acetylene carbide Silicon dioxide Silver chlorite Sodium (with aqueous HCl) Sodium 2-allyloxy-6-nitrophenylpyruvate oxime Sodium hydroxide Sodium tetraselenium Sulfonic acid Sulfuric acid Tetraselenium tetranitride 2,4,6-Tri(2-acetylhydrazino)-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene Uranium phosphide Vinyl acetate
- Hydrogen chloride gas can react with formaldehyde to form bis(chloromethyl)ether, a human carcinogen (Frankel, 1974; ILO , 1998; Tou & Kallow, 1974; Kallow & Solomon, 1973).
- Most metals, as well as certain coatings, plastics, and rubbers, are attacked by hydrogen chloride (Pohanish & Greene, 1997).
- Addition of hydrochloric acid to the following results in an exothermic reaction (Urben, 2000):
- Addition of hydrochloric acid to potassium ferrocyanide or ammonium hexacyanoferrate(II) results in an endothermic reaction (Urben, 2000).
- Hydrochloric acid in the presence of alcohol and glycols results in dehydration reactions (HSDB , 2001).
EVACUATION PROCEDURES
- Initial Isolation and Protective Action Distances (ERG, 2004)
Data presented from the Emergency Response Guidebook Table of Initial Isolation and Protective Action Distances are for use when a spill has occurred and there is no fire. If there is a fire, or if a fire is involved, evacuation information presented under FIRE - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES should be used. Generally, a small spill is one that involves a single, small package such as a drum containing up to approximately 200 liters, a small cylinder, or a small leak from a large package. A large spill is one that involves a spill from a large package, or multiple spills from many small packages. Suggested distances to protect from vapors of toxic-by-inhalation and/or water-reactive materials during the first 30 minutes following the spill. DOT ID No. 1789 : Hydrochloric acid DOT ID No. 1789 : Hydrochloric acid, solution DOT ID No. 1050 - Hydrogen chloride, anhydrous SMALL SPILLS LARGE SPILLS
DOT ID No. 2186 - Hydrogen chloride, refrigerated liquid SMALL SPILLS LARGE SPILLS
- SPILL - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004)
Increase, in the downwind direction, as necessary, the isolation distance of at least 50 meters (150 feet) for liquids and at least 25 meters (75 feet) for solids in all directions.
- SPILL - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004)
Increase, in the downwind direction, as necessary, the isolation distance of at least 100 meters (330 feet) in all directions.
- FIRE - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004)
If tank, rail car or tank truck is involved in a fire, ISOLATE for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions; also, consider initial evacuation for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions.
- FIRE - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004)
If tank, rail car or tank truck is involved in a fire, ISOLATE for 1600 meters (1 mile) in all directions; also, consider initial evacuation for 1600 meters (1 mile) in all directions.
- PUBLIC SAFETY MEASURES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004)
CALL Emergency Response Telephone Number on Shipping Paper first. If Shipping Paper not available or no answer, refer to appropriate telephone number: MEXICO: SETIQ: 01-800-00-214-00 in the Mexican Republic; For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5559-1588; For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-559-1588.
CENACOM: 01-800-00-413-00 in the Mexican Republic; For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5550-1496, 5550-1552, 5550-1485, or 5550-4885; For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-550-1496, or 011-52-555-550-1552; 011-52-555-550-1485, or 011-52-555-550-4885.
ARGENTINA: CIQUIME: 0-800-222-2933 in the Republic of Argentina; For calls originating elsewhere, call: +54-11-4613-1100.
BRAZIL: PRÓ-QUÍMICA: 0-800-118270 (Toll-free in Brazil); For calls originating elsewhere, call: +55-11-232-1144 (Collect calls are accepted).
COLUMBIA: CISPROQUIM: 01-800-091-6012 in Colombia; For calls originating in Bogotá, Colombia, call: 288-6012; For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-57-1-288-6012.
CANADA: UNITED STATES:
For additional details see the section entitled "WHO TO CALL FOR ASSISTANCE" under the ERG Instructions. As an immediate precautionary measure, isolate spill or leak area in all directions for at least 50 meters (150 feet) for liquids and at least 25 meters (75 feet) for solids. Keep unauthorized personnel away. Stay upwind. Keep out of low areas. Ventilate enclosed areas.
- PUBLIC SAFETY MEASURES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004)
CALL Emergency Response Telephone Number on Shipping Paper first. If Shipping Paper not available or no answer, refer to appropriate telephone number: MEXICO: SETIQ: 01-800-00-214-00 in the Mexican Republic; For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5559-1588; For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-559-1588.
CENACOM: 01-800-00-413-00 in the Mexican Republic; For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5550-1496, 5550-1552, 5550-1485, or 5550-4885; For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-550-1496, or 011-52-555-550-1552; 011-52-555-550-1485, or 011-52-555-550-4885.
ARGENTINA: CIQUIME: 0-800-222-2933 in the Republic of Argentina; For calls originating elsewhere, call: +54-11-4613-1100.
BRAZIL: PRÓ-QUÍMICA: 0-800-118270 (Toll-free in Brazil); For calls originating elsewhere, call: +55-11-232-1144 (Collect calls are accepted).
COLUMBIA: CISPROQUIM: 01-800-091-6012 in Colombia; For calls originating in Bogotá, Colombia, call: 288-6012; For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-57-1-288-6012.
CANADA: UNITED STATES:
For additional details see the section entitled "WHO TO CALL FOR ASSISTANCE" under the ERG Instructions. As an immediate precautionary measure, isolate spill or leak area for at least 100 meters (330 feet) in all directions. Keep unauthorized personnel away. Stay upwind. Many gases are heavier than air and will spread along ground and collect in low or confined areas (sewers, basements, tanks). Keep out of low areas. Ventilate closed spaces before entering.
- AIHA ERPG Values for CAS7647-01-0 (AIHA, 2006):
Listed as Hydrogen Chloride ERPG-1 (units = ppm): 3 ERPG-2 (units = ppm): 20 ERPG-3 (units = ppm): 150 Under Ballot, Review, or Consideration: No Definitions: ERPG-1: The ERPG-1 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to one hour without experiencing more than mild, transient adverse health effects or perceiving a clearly defined objectionable odor. ERPG-2: The ERPG-2 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to one hour without experiencing or developing irreversible or other serious health effects or symptoms that could impair an individual's ability to take protective action. ERPG-3: The ERPG-3 is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to one hour without experiencing or developing life-threatening health effects.
- DOE TEEL Values for CAS7647-01-0 (U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management, 2010):
Listed as Hydrogen chloride (Hydrochloric acid) TEEL-0 (units = ppm): 0.5 TEEL-1 (units = ppm): 1.8 TEEL-2 (units = ppm): 22 TEEL-3 (units = ppm): 100 Definitions: TEEL-0: The threshold concentration below which most people will experience no adverse health effects. TEEL-1: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm [parts per million] or mg/m(3) [milligrams per cubic meter]) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience notable discomfort, irritation, or certain asymptomatic, nonsensory effects. However, these effects are not disabling and are transient and reversible upon cessation of exposure. TEEL-2: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m(3)) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience irreversible or other serious, long-lasting, adverse health effects or an impaired ability to escape. TEEL-3: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m(3)) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience life-threatening adverse health effects or death.
- AEGL Values for CAS7647-01-0 (National Research Council, 2010; National Research Council, 2009; National Research Council, 2008; National Research Council, 2007; NRC, 2001; NRC, 2002; NRC, 2003; NRC, 2004; NRC, 2004; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; 62 FR 58840, 1997; 65 FR 14186, 2000; 65 FR 39264, 2000; 65 FR 77866, 2000; 66 FR 21940, 2001; 67 FR 7164, 2002; 68 FR 42710, 2003; 69 FR 54144, 2004):
Listed as: Hydrogen chloride Final Value: AEGL-1 10 min exposure: ppm: 1.8 ppm mg/m3: 2.7 mg/m(3)
30 min exposure: ppm: 1.8 ppm mg/m3: 2.7 mg/m(3)
1 hr exposure: ppm: 1.8 ppm mg/m3: 2.7 mg/m(3)
4 hr exposure: ppm: 1.8 ppm mg/m3: 2.7 mg/m(3)
8 hr exposure: ppm: 1.8 ppm mg/m3: 2.7 mg/m(3)
Definitions: AEGL-1 is the airborne concentration of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience notable discomfort, irritation, or certain asymptomatic non-sensory effects. However, the effects are not disabling, are transient, and are reversible upon cessation of exposure.
Listed as: Hydrogen chloride Final Value: AEGL-2 10 min exposure: ppm: 100 ppm mg/m3: 156 mg/m(3)
30 min exposure: ppm: 43 ppm mg/m3: 65 mg/m(3)
1 hr exposure: ppm: 22 ppm mg/m3: 33 mg/m(3)
4 hr exposure: ppm: 11 ppm mg/m3: 17 mg/m(3)
8 hr exposure: ppm: 11 ppm mg/m3: 17 mg/m(3)
Definitions: AEGL-2 is the airborne concentration of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience irreversible or other serious, long-lasting adverse health effects or an impaired ability to escape.
Listed as: Hydrogen chloride Final Value: AEGL-3 10 min exposure: ppm: 620 ppm mg/m3: 937 mg/m(3)
30 min exposure: ppm: 210 ppm mg/m3: 313 mg/m(3)
1 hr exposure: ppm: 100 ppm mg/m3: 155 mg/m(3)
4 hr exposure: ppm: 26 ppm mg/m3: 39 mg/m(3)
8 hr exposure: ppm: 26 ppm mg/m3: 39 mg/m(3)
Definitions: AEGL-3 is the airborne concentration of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience life-threatening health effects or death.
- NIOSH IDLH Values for CAS7647-01-0 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):
IDLH: 50 ppm Note(s): Not Listed
CONTAINMENT/WASTE TREATMENT OPTIONS
SPILL OR LEAK PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004) ELIMINATE all ignition sources (no smoking, flares, sparks or flames in immediate area). All equipment used when handling the product must be grounded. Do not touch damaged containers or spilled material unless wearing appropriate protective clothing. Stop leak if you can do it without risk. A vapor suppressing foam may be used to reduce vapors. DO NOT GET WATER INSIDE CONTAINERS. Use water spray to reduce vapors or divert vapor cloud drift. Avoid allowing water runoff to contact spilled material. Prevent entry into waterways, sewers, basements or confined areas.
SPILL OR LEAK PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004) Fully encapsulating, vapor protective clothing should be worn for spills and leaks with no fire. Do not touch or walk through spilled material. Stop leak if you can do it without risk. If possible, turn leaking containers so that gas escapes rather than liquid. Prevent entry into waterways, sewers, basements or confined areas. Do not direct water at spill or source of leak. Use water spray to reduce vapors or divert vapor cloud drift. Avoid allowing water runoff to conact spilled material. Isolate area until gas has dispersed.
RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004) Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Wear chemical protective clothing that is specifically recommended by the manufacturer. It may provide little or no thermal protection. Structural firefighters' protective clothing provides limited protection in fire situations ONLY; it is not effective in spill situations where direct contact with the substance is possible.
RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 125 (ERG, 2004) Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). Wear chemical protective clothing that is specifically recommended by the manufacturer. It may provide little or no thermal protection. Structural firefighters' protective clothing provides limited protection in fire situations ONLY; it is not effective in spill situations where direct contact with the substance is possible.
Keep upwind. Contact with both the liquid and vapor should be avoided. Use protective clothing and a self-contained breathing apparatus. (Ensure that individuals not wearing protective equipment are isolated form the area.) Control the spill if possible. Water, as fog or spray, may be employed to knock down and absorb any vapors; this water will then be corrosive and toxic. Attempt to isolate this material and runoff for proper disposal; keep out of sewers and water sources. Utilize soil, foamed concrete, foamed polyurethane, or sand bags to dike the liquid. Large amounts of the liquid can be absorbed with cement powder or fly ash. Cover with sodium bicarbonate, agricultural lime or a mixture of slaked lime and soda ash; after mixing, add water if needed to form a slurry. If leaked in gaseous form, it may be discharged into a scrubber that contains water and an alkali (i.e., sodium hydroxide) at a concentration of 15%. A reverse flow check valve or trap must be placed in the discharge line so that the caustic solution does not draw back into the cylinder. If a leaking cylinder cannot be quickly repaired, it should be removed to a safe place in the open air (AAR, 2000; (CGA, 1999; CHRIS , 2001; ITI, 1995; NFPA, 1997; Sittig, 1991). "At the time of review, criteria for land treatment or burial (sanitary landfill) disposal practices are subject to significant revision. Prior to implementing land disposal of waste residue (including waste sludge), consult with environmental regulatory agencies for guidance an acceptable disposal practices" (HSDB , 2001). Notify pollution control and health agencies as well as operators of affected water intakes in event of a spill (CHRIS , 2001). Disposal methods may be subject to permitting by provincial, state, or federal regulations. Check with with the proper authorites prior to disposal activities (CGA, 1999). "Leaks in anhydrous hydrogen chloride system connections may be detected by the white fumes that form when the gas comes into contact with the moisture of the atmosphere. Small leaks may be found with an open bottle of concentrated ammonium hydroxide solution (which forms dense white fumes in the presence of hydrogen chloride) or with wet blue litmus paper (which is turned pink by hydrogen chloride)" (CGA, 1999).
SMALL SPILL PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 157 (ERG, 2004) Cover with DRY earth, DRY sand, or other non-combustible material followed with plastic sheet to minimize spreading or contact with rain. Use clean non-sparking tools to collect material and place it into loosely covered plastic containers for later disposal.
Small leaks in equipment designed for handling hydrogen chloride gas (anhydrous) can be detected in two ways. White fumes will form where this compound comes into contact with moist air. Very small leaks may be determined using an open container of concentrated ammonium hydroxide solution; it will form dense white fumes in the presence of hydrogen chloride (CGA, 1999).
Small quantities may be disposed of in the following manner. Slowly stir the hydrogen chloride solution into a large amount of slaked lime and soda ash solution. Discharge this mixture, with a large amount of water, into a sink equipped with protective matting and filled with chipped marble (ITI, 1995). Hydrogen chloride gas (anhydrous) can be disposed of by slowly discharging into a scrubber, or other vessel, containing a 15% sodium hydroxide (or other alkali) solution. Note: It is important to place a reverse flow check valve or trap in the discharge line to prevent the solution drawing back into the cylinder (CGA, 1999). In industry, aqueous scrubbers are employed to control hydrogen chloride emissions from vent stacks, etc (HSDB , 2001). Waste management activities associated with material disposition are unique to individual situations. Proper waste characterization and decisions regarding waste management should be coordinated with the appropriate local, state, or federal authorities to ensure compliance with all applicable rules and regulations.
-ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD MANAGEMENT
POLLUTION HAZARD
- In nature, hydrogen chloride is generated by geological activity. It also occurs as a component in a number of minerals, including: carnallite, halite (rock salt), and sylvite. It also is the source of the chloride ion in seawater. Anthropogenic sources are many, and include waste and fugitive emissions from its production, from its many and varied uses, as well as in the combustion of fuels. It is a common air pollutant (HSDB , 2001; HSDB , 1996).
ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND KINETICS
TERRESTRIAL When anhydrous hydrogen chloride is leaked onto soil, large scale evaporation will occur. Some small amount may be captured by ambient soil moisture to form small amounts of aqueous solution. Aqueous hydrogen chloride (hydrochloric acid) will sink into the soil. This acid will dissolve some soil material (in particular, anything with a carbonate base). The acid will be somewhat neutralized, although, the largest portion is thought to transport downward to the water table (HSDB , 2001).
BIOACCUMULATION
ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICITY
- (Values are from OHM/TADS, 2001 unless otherwise noted)
IMMOBILIZATION - DAPHNIA MAGNA: 62 ppm - Lake Erie; 25 degrees C KILLED - GOLDFISH: 166 ppm for 4H - hard, freshwater LC50 - BLUEGILL SUNFISH: 96 hours - pH between 3.0 and 3.5 (HSDB, 2001) LC50 - BROWN SHRIMP: 260 ppm for 48H - aerated, saltwater LC50 - COCKLE: 330-1000 ppm for 48H - aerated, saltwater LC50 - GOLDFISH: 178 mg/L for 1 to 2 hour survival time (HSDB, 2001) LC50 - INVERTEBRATES: pH of 1.21-5.05 for 96H - static, freshwater LC50 - POGGE: 100-330 ppm for 48H - aerated, saltwater LC50 - SHRIMP: 100-330 ppm for 48H - aerated, saltwater LC50 - SHORE CRAB: 240 ppm for 48H - static, aerated, saltwater LC50 - SHORE CRAB: 240 mg/L for 48 hours (HSDB, 2001) LC50 - SHRIMP: 100 to 330 ppm for 48 hours - saltwater (CHRIS, 2001) LC50 - STARFISH: 100-330 ppm for 48H - aerated, saltwater LC50 - STARFISH: 100 to 330 mg/L for 48 hours (HSDB, 2001) LC100 - BLUEGILL SUNFISH: 3.6 mg/L for 48 hours (HSDB, 2001) LC100 - TROUT: 10 mg/L for 24 hours (HSDB, 2001) LETHAL - CARP, SHINERS, SUCKERS: 3.65 ppm for 24H - freshwater LETHAL - CHUB: 80 ppm for 24H - freshwater LETHAL - SUNFISH: 3.6 ppm for 48H - distilled, freshwater LETHAL - SUNFISH: 8 ppm for 24H - freshwater MLD - MINNOW: 4 ppm for 6H - distilled, freshwater MLD - MINNOW: 100 ppm for 6H - hard, freshwater MLD - TROUT: 10 ppm for 24H - freshwater RELATIVE TOXICITY - GOLDFISH: 0.1 ppm for 6H - freshwater RELATIVE TOXICITY - STICKLEBACK: 0.018 ppm for 6H - freshwater SURVIVAL TIME - DAPHNIA MAGNA: 69 ppm for 1-4H - soft, static, freshwater SURVIVAL TIME - DAPHNIA MAGNA: 65 ppm for 1-4H - soft, static, freshwater SURVIVAL TIME - DAPHNIA MAGNA: 60 ppm for 4-17H - soft, static, freshwater SURVIVAL TIME - DAPHNIA MAGNA: 56 ppm for 17-72H - soft, static, freshwater SURVIVAL TIME - GOLDFISH: 1000 ppm for 0.18-0.25H - freshwater SURVIVAL TIME - GOLDFISH: 178 ppm for 1-2H - freshwater SURVIVAL TIME - GOLDFISH: 196 ppm for 1.25-1.5H - freshwater SURVIVAL TIME - GOLDFISH: 178 ppm for 1.36-2.25H - freshwater SURVIVAL TIME - GOLDFISH: 166 ppm for 4.5-6.5H - freshwater SURVIVAL TIME - GOLDFISH: 1000 ppm for 0.16-0.25 - freshwater 20% SURVIVAL - DAPHNIA MAGNA: 56 ppm for 17-72H - soft, static, freshwater TLM - MOSQUITO FISH: 282 ppm for 96H - turbid, freshwater TLM - MOSQUITO FISH: 282 ppm for 96 hours - freshwater (CHRIS, 2001)
-PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
DESCRIPTION/PHYSICAL STATE
- Hydrogen chloride is a colorless to light-yellow gas with an irritating, pungent odor. It fumes in air (ACGIH, 1991; (Budavari, 1996; Lewis, 2000).
- The aqueous solution (hydrochloric acid) is also colorless to light-yellow. This color results from traces of iron, chlorine, or organic matter (Budavari, 1996; Lewis, 1992).
PH
- 83 mL of concentrated hydrogen chloride solution poured into a sufficient quantity of water to make one liter yields approximately 1.0N; the pH values of different concentrations are as follows (Budavari, 1996):
1.0N is 0.10 0.1N is 1.10 0.01N is 2.02 0.001N is 3.02 0.0001N is 4.01
VAPOR PRESSURE
- 4.0 atm (at 17.8 degrees C) (Lewis, 2000)
- 613 psig (at 21.1 degrees C; 70 degrees F)(CGA, 1999)
- 676 psig (at 25 degrees C; 77 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)
- 950 psig (at 40.6 degrees C; 105 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)
- 1075 psig (at 46.1 degrees C; 115 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)
- 1185 psig (at 51.4 degrees C; 124.5 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)
- 57.6 mmHg (at 120 degrees C) (hydrochloric acid, aqueous solution) (OHM/TADS , 2001)
- 40.5 atm (at 20 degrees C; 68 degrees F) (Harbison, 1998; NIOSH , 2001)
- 3.54 x 10(4) mmHg (at 25 degrees C) (HSDB , 2001)
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
- OTHER TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE
LIQUID: 1.05 (at 15/4 degrees C) (10.17% w/w solution) (Budavari, 1996) LIQUID: 1.10 (at 15/4 degrees C) (20% w/w solution) (Budavari, 1996) LIQUID: 1.15 (at 15/4 degrees C) (29.57% w/w solution) (Budavari, 1996) LIQUID: 1.20 (at 15/4 degrees C) (39.11% w/w solution) (Budavari, 1996)
DENSITY
- OTHER TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE
LIQUID: 1190 kg/m(3); 74.3 lb/ft(3) (-85 degrees C; -121 degrees F) (CGA, 1999) LIQUID: 1086 kg/m(3); 67.8 lb/ft(3) (-45.6 degrees C; -50 degrees F) (CGA, 1999) LIQUID: 1005 kg/m(3); 62.9 lb/ft(3) (-16.7 degrees C; 2 degrees F) (CGA, 1999) LIQUID: 842 kg/m(3); 52.7 lb/ft(3) (21.1 degrees C; 70 degrees F) (CGA, 1999) LIQUID: 700 kg/m(3); 43.8 lb/ft(3) (40.6 degrees C; 105 degrees F) (CGA, 1990) LIQUID: 634 kg/m(3); 39.7 lb/ft(3) (46.1 degrees C; 115 degrees F) (CGA, 1999) LIQUID: 420 kg/m(3); 26.2 lb/ft(3) (51.4 degrees C; 124.5 degrees F) (CGA, 1999) LIQUID: 1.194 g/mL (at -26 degrees C) (Lewis, 2000) LIQUID: 1.191 g/mL (at -85 degrees C) (CHRIS , 2001)
- TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE NOT LISTED
0.7370 lb/ft(3); 11.81 kg/m(3) (-45.6 degrees C; -50 degrees F) (CGA, 1999) 0.102 lb/ft(3); 1.634 kg/m(3) (0 degrees C; 32 degrees F) (CGA, 1999) 0.0950 lb/ft(3); 1.522 kg/m(3) (21.1 degrees C; 70 degrees F) (CGA, 1999)
FREEZING/MELTING POINT
-114.22 degrees C; -174 degrees F (ACGIH, 1991; (Lewis, 1993; NIOSH , 2001) -115 degrees C; -175 degrees F; 158 Kelvin (CHRIS , 2001) Of various concentrations in solution (Budavari, 1969): -17.14 degrees C (10.81% solution) -62.25 degrees C (20.69% solution) -46.2 degrees C (31.24% solution) -25.4 degrees C (39.17% solution)
-114.22 degrees C; -173.6 degrees F (Budavari, 1996; CGA, 1999) -114.19 degrees C (ITI, 1995) -114.8 degrees C (Bingham et al, 2001; HSDB , 2001) -114.3 degrees C (OHM/TADS , 2001) -114 degrees C; -174 degrees F (Ashford, 1994)
BOILING POINT
- -85 degrees C (Budavari, 1996; Bingham et al, 2001; HSDB , 2001; ITI, 1995; Lewis, 2000)
- -85.0 degrees C; -121 degrees F; 188.2 degrees K (CGA, 1999; CHRIS , 2001)
- -114.61 degrees C (at 100 mmHg) (Budavari, 1996)
- -137.77 degrees C (at 10 mmHg) (Budavari, 1996)
- -154.37 degrees C (at 1.0 mmHg) (Budavari, 1996; Lewis, 2000)
- Hydrochloric acid solution (37% hydrogen chloride): 50.5 degrees C; 123 degrees F; 323.8 degrees K (CHRIS , 2001)
- Hydrochloric acid solution (20.22% HCl): 108.58 degrees C (at 760 mmHg) (Budavari, 1996)
SOLUBILITY
Hydrogen chloride is miscible with alcohol, benzene, and ether (HSDB , 2001; Lewis, 2000; Lewis, 1997). Solubility in methanol (g/100 g of methanol) (Budavari, 1996): 54.6 (at -10 degrees C) 51.3 (at 0 degrees C) 47.0 (at 20 degrees C) 43.0 (at 30 degrees C)
Solubility in ethanol (g/100 g of ethanol) (Budavari, 1996): 45.4 (at 0 degrees C) 42.7 (at 10 degrees C) 41.0 (at 20 degrees C) 38.1 (at 30 degrees C)
Solubility in ether (g/100 g of ether) (Budavari, 1996): 37.52 (at -10 degrees C) 35.6 (at 0 degrees C) 24.9 (at 20 degrees C) 19.47 (at 30 degrees C)
It is insoluble in most hydrocarbons (HSDB , 2001).
OTHER/PHYSICAL
- DECOMPOSITION TEMPERATURE
13.0 cal/g (CHRIS , 2001) 0.476 kcal/mol (HSDB , 2001) LATENT HEAT OF FUSION: 23.49 Btu/lb; 54.64 kJ/kg (at melting point) (CGA, 1999)
1.256 (at 20 degrees C) (liquid under pressure) (Budavari, 1996; ITI, 1995) 1.34168 (at 18 degrees C) (for a 1.0N solution) (Budavari, 1996) 1.254 (at 283 degrees K) (liquid) (HSDB , 2001) 1.0 (at 273.16 degrees K) (gas) (HSDB , 2001)
-REFERENCES
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY- 40 CFR 372.28: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Lower thresholds for chemicals of special concern. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO). Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.
- 40 CFR 372.65: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Chemicals and Chemical Categories to which this part applies. National Archives and Records Association (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.
- 49 CFR 172.101 - App. B: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials, Appendix B: List of Marine Pollutants. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 29, 2005.
- 49 CFR 172.101: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 11, 2005.
- 62 FR 58840: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 1997.
- 65 FR 14186: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.
- 65 FR 39264: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.
- 65 FR 77866: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.
- 66 FR 21940: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2001.
- 67 FR 7164: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2002.
- 68 FR 42710: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2003.
- 69 FR 54144: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2004.
- ACGIH: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 6th ed, Am Conference of Govt Ind Hyg, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, 1992, pp 773-774.
- AIHA: 2006 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines and Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook, American Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006.
- Aceto T Jr, Terplan K, & Fiore RR: Chemical burns of the esophagus in children and glucocorticoid therapy. J Med 1970; 1:101-109.
- Adam JS & Brick HG: Pediatric caustic ingestion. Ann Otol Laryngol 1982; 91:656-658.
- Albert RE: J Natl Cancer Inst 1982; 68:597-603.
- American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists : ACGIH 2010 Threshold Limit Values (TLVs(R)) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs(R)), American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH, 2010.
- Anderson KD, Touse TM, & Randolph JG: A controlled trial of corticosteroids in children with corrosive injury of the esophagus. N Engl J Med 1990; 323:637-640.
- Ansell-Edmont: SpecWare Chemical Application and Recommendation Guide. Ansell-Edmont. Coshocton, OH. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.ansellpro.com/specware. As accessed 10/31/2001.
- Artigas A, Bernard GR, Carlet J, et al: The American-European consensus conference on ARDS, part 2: ventilatory, pharmacologic, supportive therapy, study design strategies, and issues related to recovery and remodeling.. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157:1332-1347.
- Ashford R: Ashford's Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals, Wavelength Publications Ltd, London, England, 1994.
- Bata Shoe Company: Industrial Footwear Catalog, Bata Shoe Company, Belcamp, MD, 1995.
- Best Manufacturing: ChemRest Chemical Resistance Guide. Best Manufacturing. Menlo, GA. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.chemrest.com. As accessed 10/8/2002.
- Best Manufacturing: Degradation and Permeation Data. Best Manufacturing. Menlo, GA. 2004. Available from URL: http://www.chemrest.com/DomesticPrep2/. As accessed 04/09/2004.
- Bingham E, Cohrssen B, & Powell CH: Patty's Toxicology, Vol 3. 5th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2001.
- Bond GG, Flores GH, & Stafford BA: Lung cancer and hydrogen chloride exposure: results from a nested case-control study of chemical workers. J Occup Med 1991; 33:958-961.
- Boss Manufacturing Company: Work Gloves, Boss Manufacturing Company, Kewanee, IL, 1998.
- Boukthir S, Fetni I, Mrad SM, et al: [High doses of steroids in the management of caustic esophageal burns in children]. Arch Pediatr 2004; 11(1):13-17.
- Boysen PG & Modell JH: Pulmonary edema, in: Textbook of Critical Care Medicine, 2nd ed. Shoemaker WC, Ayres S, Grenvik A et al (Eds), WB Saunders Company, Philadelphia, PA, 1989, pp 515-518.
- Brower RG, Matthay AM, & Morris A: Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Eng J Med 2000; 342:1301-1308.
- Budavari S: The Merck Index, 12th ed, Merck & Co, Inc, Whitehouse Station, NJ, 1996.
- Burgess JL, Kirk M, Borron SW, et al: Emergency department hazardous materials protocol for contaminated patients. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 34(2):205-212.
- CGA: Handbook of Compressed Gases, 3rd ed, Compressed Gas Association, Inc, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1990.
- CGA: Handbook of Compressed Gases, 3rd ed, Compressed Gas Association, Inc, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1999.
- CHRIS : CHRIS Hazardous Chemical Data. US Department of Transportation, US Coast Guard. Washington, DC (Internet Version). Edition expires 4/30/2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
- Cadranel S, DiLorenzo C, Rodesch P, et al: Caustic ingestion and esophageal function. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1990; 10(2):164-168.
- Caravati EM: Alkali. In: Dart RC, ed. Medical Toxicology, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 2004.
- Cataletto M: Respiratory Distress Syndrome, Acute(ARDS). In: Domino FJ, ed. The 5-Minute Clinical Consult 2012, 20th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 2012.
- ChemFab Corporation: Chemical Permeation Guide Challenge Protective Clothing Fabrics, ChemFab Corporation, Merrimack, NH, 1993.
- Chemsoft(R) : Electronic EPA, NIOSH, & OSHA Methods (TM). Windowchem (TM) Software. Fairfield, CA. 1996.
- Chodak GW & Passaro E: Acid ingestion: need for gastric resection. JAMA 1978; 239:229-226.
- Chudnofsky CR & Otten EJ: Acute pulmonary toxicity to nitrofurantoin. J Emerg Med 1989; 7:15-19.
- Clayton GD & Clayton FE: Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Vol 2C, Toxicology, 3rd ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1982, pp 4303.
- Cleveland WW, Chandler JR, & Lawson RB: Treatment of caustic burns of the esophagus. JAMA 1963; 186:182-183.
- Coggon D, Pannett B, & Wield G: Upper aerodigestive cancer in battery manufacturers and steel workers exposed to mineral acid mists. Occup Environ Med 1996; 53:445-449.
- Comasec Safety, Inc.: Chemical Resistance to Permeation Chart. Comasec Safety, Inc.. Enfield, CT. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.comasec.com/webcomasec/english/catalogue/mtabgb.html. As accessed 4/28/2003.
- Comasec Safety, Inc.: Product Literature, Comasec Safety, Inc., Enfield, CT, 2003a.
- DFG: List of MAK and BAT Values 2002, Report No. 38, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazards of Chemical Compounds in the Work Area, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany, 2002.
- Darmer KI, Kinkead ER, & DiPasquale LC: Acute toxicity in rats and mice exposed to hydrogen chloride gas and aerosols. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1974; 35:623-631.
- Dilawari JB, Singh S, & Rao PN: Corrosive acid ingestion in man, a clinical and endoscopic study. Gut 1984a; 25:183-187.
- Dilawari JB, Singh S, & Rao PN: Corrosive acid ingestion in man: a clinical and endoscopic study. GUT 1984; 25:183-187.
- DuPont: DuPont Suit Smart: Interactive Tool for the Selection of Protective Apparel. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2002. Available from URL: http://personalprotection.dupont.com/protectiveapparel/suitsmart/smartsuit2/na_english.asp. As accessed 10/31/2002.
- DuPont: Permeation Guide for DuPont Tychem Protective Fabrics. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2003. Available from URL: http://personalprotection.dupont.com/en/pdf/tyvektychem/pgcomplete20030128.pdf. As accessed 4/26/2004.
- DuPont: Permeation Test Results. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2002a. Available from URL: http://www.tyvekprotectiveapprl.com/databases/default.htm. As accessed 7/31/2002.
- Dyer FR & Esch VH: Polyvinyl chloride toxicity in fires: hydrogen chloride toxicity in fire fighters. JAMA 1976; 235:393-397.
- EPA: EPA chemical profile on hydrochloric acid, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 1985.
- EPA: Search results for Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Inventory Chemicals. US Environmental Protection Agency, Substance Registry System, U.S. EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.epa.gov/srs/.
- ERG: Emergency Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial Phase of a Dangerous Goods/Hazardous Materials Incident, U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Washington, DC, 2004.
- Eijking EP, Gommers D, & Kiem L: Prevention of respiratory failure after hydrochloric acid aspiration by intratracheal surfactant instillation in rats. Anesth Analg 1993; 76:472-477.
- Estrera A, Taylor W, & Mills LJ: Corrosive burns of the esophagus and stomach: a recommendation of an aggressive surgical approach. Ann Thorac Surg 1986; 41:276-283.
- Ferguson MK, Migliore M, & Staszak VM: Early evaluation and therapy for caustic esophageal injury. Am J Surg 1989; 157:116-120.
- Finkel AJ: Hamilton and Hardy's Industrial Toxicology, 4th ed, John Wright, PSG Inc, Boston, MA, 1983, pp 179.
- Finnegan MJ & Hodson ME: Prolonged hypoxaemia following inhalation of hydrogen chloride vapour. Thorax 1989; 44:238-239.
- Frankel LS: Environ Sci Technol 1974; 8:356-359.
- Froneberg B, Johnson PL, & Landrigan PJ: Respiratory illness caused by overheating of polyvinyl chloride. Br J Ind Med 1982; 39:239-243.
- Gorman RL, Khin-Maung-Gyi MT, & Klein-Schwartz W: Initial symptoms as predictors of esophageal injury in alkaline corrosive ingestions. Am J Emerg Med 1992; 10:89-94.
- Gosselin RE, Smith RP, & Hodge HC: Clinical Toxicology of Commercial Products, 5th ed, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1984, pp 8-12.
- Grant WM & Schuman JS: Toxicology of the Eye, 4th ed, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1993.
- Grieve AW, Davis P, Dhillon S, et al: A clinical review of the management of frostbite. J R Army Med Corps 2011; 157(1):73-78.
- Guardian Manufacturing Group: Guardian Gloves Test Results. Guardian Manufacturing Group. Willard, OH. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.guardian-mfg.com/guardianmfg.html. As accessed 12/11/2001.
- HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 10/31/1996; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
- HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 1992; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
- HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
- HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2006; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
- Haas CF: Mechanical ventilation with lung protective strategies: what works?. Crit Care Clin 2011; 27(3):469-486.
- Hallam MJ, Cubison T, Dheansa B, et al: Managing frostbite. BMJ 2010; 341:c5864-.
- Haller JA & Bachman K: The comparative effect of current therapy on experimental caustic burns of the esophagus. Pediatrics 1964; 236-245.
- Haller JA, Andrews HG, & White JJ: Pathophysiology and management of acute corrosive burns of the esophagus. J Pediatr Surg 1971; 6:578-584.
- Harbison RD: Hamilton & Hardy's Industrial Toxicology, 5th ed, Mosby-Year Books, St. Louis, MO, 1998.
- Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 3rd ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1991, pp 332-333.
- Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 4th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1996.
- Hawkins DB, Demeter MJ, & Barnett TE: Caustic ingestion: controversies in management. A review of 214 cases. Laryngoscope 1980; 90:98-109.
- Hovarth OP, Olah T, & Zentai G: Emergency esophagogastrectomy for the treatment of hydrochloric acid injury. Ann Thorac Surg 1991; 52:98-101.
- Howell JM, Dalsey WC, & Hartsell FW: Steroids for the treatment of corrosive esophageal injury: a statistical analysis of past studies. Am J Emerg Med 1992; 10:421-425.
- Howell JM: Alkaline ingestions. Ann Emerg Med 1987; 15:820-825.
- IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: 1,3-Butadiene, Ethylene Oxide and Vinyl Halides (Vinyl Fluoride, Vinyl Chloride and Vinyl Bromide), 97, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2008.
- IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol and 1-tert-Butoxypropan-2-ol, 88, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2006.
- IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Household Use of Solid Fuels and High-temperature Frying, 95, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010a.
- IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Smokeless Tobacco and Some Tobacco-specific N-Nitrosamines, 89, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2007.
- IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some Non-heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Some Related Exposures, 92, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010.
- IARC: List of all agents, mixtures and exposures evaluated to date - IARC Monographs: Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity to Humans, Volumes 1-88, 1972-PRESENT. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon, FranceAvailable from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/monoeval/crthall.html. As accessed Oct 07, 2004.
- IARC: Monogrpahs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Man, 4, International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1974, pp 231.
- ICAO: Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air, 2003-2004. International Civil Aviation Organization, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2002.
- ILC Dover, Inc.: Chemical Compatibility Chart. ILC Dover, Inc.. Frederica, DE. 1998a. Available from URL: http://www.ilcdover.com/WebDocs/chart.pdf; http://www.ilcdover.com/Products/ProtSuits/Ready1/chart.htm. As accessed 12/15/2001.
- ILC Dover, Inc.: Ready 1 The Chemturion Limited Use Chemical Protective Suit, ILC Dover, Inc., Frederica, DE, 1998.
- ILO : Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 4th ed. Vol 1-4. (CD ROM Version). International Labour Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. 1998.
- ITI: Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual, The International Technical Information Institute, Tokyo, Japan, 1985, pp 272-273.
- ITI: Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual, The International Technical Information Institute, Tokyo, Japan, 1995.
- International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: list of classifications, volumes 1-116. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Lyon, France. 2016. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/latest_classif.php. As accessed 2016-08-24.
- International Agency for Research on Cancer: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. 2015. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/. As accessed 2015-08-06.
- Ip M, Wong K-L, & Wong K-F: Lung injury in dimethyl sulfate poisoning. J Occup Med 1989; 31:141-143.
- Kallow GJ & Solomon RA: Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1973; 34:469-473.
- Kamijo Y, Kondo I, Kokuto M, et al: Miniprobe ultrasonography for determining prognosis in corrosive esophagitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2004; 99(5):851-854.
- Kaplan HL, Anzueto A, & Switzer WG: Effects of hydrogen chloride on respiratory response and pulmonary function of the baboon. J Toxicol Environ Health 1988; 23:473-493.
- Kappler, Inc.: Suit Smart. Kappler, Inc.. Guntersville, AL. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.kappler.com/suitsmart/smartsuit2/na_english.asp?select=1. As accessed 7/10/2001.
- Kim SJ, Cho SB, Cho JM, et al: CT imaging of gastric and hepatic complications after ingestion of glacial acetic acid. J Comput Assist Tomogr 2007; 31(4):564-568.
- Kimberly-Clark, Inc.: Chemical Test Results. Kimberly-Clark, Inc.. Atlanta, GA. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.kc-safety.com/tech_cres.html. As accessed 10/4/2002.
- Kleinman ME, Chameides L, Schexnayder SM, et al: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Part 14: pediatric advanced life support. Circulation 2010; 122(18 Suppl.3):S876-S908.
- Knox WG, Scott JR, & Zintel HA: Bouginage and steroids used singly or in combination in experimental corrosive esophagitis. Ann Surg 1967; 166:930-941.
- Kollef MH & Schuster DP: The acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 1995; 332:27-37.
- LaCrosse-Rainfair: Safety Products, LaCrosse-Rainfair, Racine, WI, 1997.
- Lewis RJ: Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1993, pp 616.
- Lewis RJ: Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 13th ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, NY, 1997.
- Lewis RJ: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 10th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 2000.
- Lewis RJ: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 8th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1992.
- LoVecchio F, Hamilton R, & Sturman K: A meta-analysis of the use of steroids in the prevention of stricture formation from second degree caustic burns of the esophagus (abstract). J Toxicol-Clin Toxicol 1996; 35:579-580.
- MAPA Professional: Chemical Resistance Guide. MAPA North America. Columbia, TN. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.mapaglove.com/pro/ChemicalSearch.asp. As accessed 4/21/2003.
- MAPA Professional: Chemical Resistance Guide. MAPA North America. Columbia, TN. 2004. Available from URL: http://www.mapaglove.com/ProductSearch.cfm?id=1. As accessed 6/10/2004.
- Machle W, Kitzmiller KV, & Scott EW: The effect of the inhalation of hydrogen chloride. J Ind Hyg 1942; 24:222-225.
- Maggart M & Stewart S: The mechanisms and management of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema following cardiopulmonary bypass. Ann Thorac Surg 1987; 43:231-236.
- Mar-Mac Manufacturing, Inc: Product Literature, Protective Apparel, Mar-Mac Manufacturing, Inc., McBee, SC, 1995.
- Marigold Industrial: US Chemical Resistance Chart, on-line version. Marigold Industrial. Norcross, GA. 2003. Available from URL: www.marigoldindustrial.com/charts/uschart/uschart.html. As accessed 4/14/2003.
- Markowitz JS, Gutterman EM, & Schwartz S: Acute health effects among firefighters exposed to a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) fire. Am J Epidemiol 1989; 129:1023-1031.
- Marshall F II: Caustic burns of the esophagus: ten year results of aggressive care. South Med J 1979; 72:1236-1237.
- Maull KI, Osmand AP, & Maull CD: Liquid caustic ingestions: an in vitro study of the effects of buffer, neutralization, and dilation. Ann Emerg Med 1985a; 14:1160-1162.
- Maull KI, Osmand AP, & Maull CD: Liquid caustic ingestions: an in vitro study of the effects of buffer, neutralization, and dilution. Ann Emerg Med 1985; 14:1160-1162.
- Memphis Glove Company: Permeation Guide. Memphis Glove Company. Memphis, TN. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.memphisglove.com/permeation.html. As accessed 7/2/2001.
- Meredith JW, Kon ND, & Thompson JN: Management of injuries from liquid lye ingestion. J Trauma 1988; 28:1173-1180.
- Mizus I, Summer W, & Farrukh I: Isoproterenol or aminophylline attenuate pulmonary edema after acid lung injury. Am Rev Respir Dis 1985; 131:256-259.
- Moazam F, Talbert JL, & Miller D: Caustic ingestion and its sequelae in children. South Med J 1987; 80:187-188.
- Montgomery Safety Products: Montgomery Safety Products Chemical Resistant Glove Guide, Montgomery Safety Products, Canton, OH, 1995.
- Muhletaler CA, Gerlock AJ, & de Soto L: Acid corrosive esophagitis: radiographic findings. Am J Radiol 1980; 134:1137-1140.
- Munoz EM, Garcia-Domingo MI, & Santiago JR: Massive necrosis of the gastrointestinal tract after ingestion of hydrochloric acid. Eur J Surg 2001; 167:195-198.
- Murphy JV, Banwell PE, & Roberts AHN: Frostbite: pathogenesis and treatment. J Trauma 2000; 48:171-178.
- NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 12th ed, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1997.
- NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 13th ed., National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.
- NHLBI ARDS Network: Mechanical ventilation protocol summary. Massachusetts General Hospital. Boston, MA. 2008. Available from URL: http://www.ardsnet.org/system/files/6mlcardsmall_2008update_final_JULY2008.pdf. As accessed 2013-08-07.
- NIOSH : Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
- NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 1, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.
- NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 2, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2002.
- NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 3, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2003.
- NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 4, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2004.
- Naradzay J & Barish RA: Approach to ophthalmologic emergencies. Med Clin North Am 2006; 90(2):305-328.
- Nat-Wear: Protective Clothing, Hazards Chart. Nat-Wear. Miora, NY. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.natwear.com/hazchart1.htm. As accessed 7/12/2001.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Butylene Oxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648083cdbb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Dibromoethane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802796db&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 2-Ethylhexyl Chloroformate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037904e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Acrylonitrile (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648028e6a3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Adamsite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Agent BZ (3-quinuclidinyl benzilate) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ad507&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Allyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039d9ee&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Arsenic Trioxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480220305&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Automotive Gasoline Unleaded (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cc17&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Biphenyl (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1b7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bis-Chloromethyl Ether (BCME) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648022db11&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Boron Tribromide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae1d3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromine Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039732a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromoacetone (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187bf&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Calcium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae328&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Sulfide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037ff26&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Chlorobenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803a52bb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Cyanogen (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187fe&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Dimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbf3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Diphenylchloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091884e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Phosphorodichloridate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480920347&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809203e7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Germane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963906&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Hexafluoropropylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1f5&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ketene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ee7c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Malathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809639df&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Mercury Vapor (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a087&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Isothiocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a03&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a57&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802a4985&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methylchlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5f4&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c646&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN1 CAS Reg. No. 538-07-8) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN2 CAS Reg. No. 51-75-2) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN3 CAS Reg. No. 555-77-1) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Tetroxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091855b&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Trifluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008o. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e32&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perchloryl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e268&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perfluoroisobutylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008p. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dd58&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020cc0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phorate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008q. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dcc8&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene (Draft-Revised). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a08a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene Oxime (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26d&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Propargyl Alcohol (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec91&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Selenium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec55&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Silane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d523&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Strontium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sulfuryl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec7a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tear Gas (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008s. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e551&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tellurium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e2a1&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tert-Octyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008r. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5c7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tetramethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-17.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7d608&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethylacetyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008t. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5cc&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Zinc Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for n-Butyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064808f9591&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
- National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute: Expert panel report 3: guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute. Bethesda, MD. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.pdf.
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, 2007.
- National Research Council : Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 5, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2007.
- National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 6, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2008.
- National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 7, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2009.
- National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 8, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2010.
- Neese Industries, Inc.: Fabric Properties Rating Chart. Neese Industries, Inc.. Gonzales, LA. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.neeseind.com/new/TechGroup.asp?Group=Fabric+Properties&Family=Technical. As accessed 4/15/2003.
- North: Chemical Resistance Comparison Chart - Protective Footwear . North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.linkpath.com/index2gisufrm.php?t=N-USA1. As accessed April 30, 2004.
- North: eZ Guide Interactive Software. North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002a. Available from URL: http://www.northsafety.com/feature1.htm. As accessed 8/31/2002.
- Nuutinen M, Uhari M, & Karvali T: Consequences of caustic ingestions in children. Acta Paediatr 1994; 83:1200-1205.
- OHM/TADS : Oil and Hazardous Materials/Technical Assistance Data System. US Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC (Internet Version). Edition expires 4/30/2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
- Oakes DD, Sherck JP, & Mark JBD: Lye ingestion. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1982; 83:194-204.
- Pavlova TE: Bull Exp Biol Med 1976; 82:1078-1081.
- Peate WF: Work-related eye injuries and illnesses. Am Fam Physician 2007; 75(7):1017-1022.
- Peberdy MA , Callaway CW , Neumar RW , et al: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science. Part 9: post–cardiac arrest care. Circulation 2010; 122(18 Suppl 3):S768-S786.
- Pelclova D & Navratil T: Do corticosteroids prevent oesophageal stricture after corrosive ingestion?. Toxicol Rev 2005; 24(2):125-129.
- Penner GE: Acid ingestion: Toxicology and Treatment. Ann Emerg Med 1980; 9:374-379.
- Playtex: Fits Tough Jobs Like a Glove, Playtex, Westport, CT, 1995.
- Pohanish RP & Greene SA: Rapid Guide to Chemical Incompatibilities, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1997.
- Previtera C, Giusti F, & Gugliemi M: Predictive value of visible lesions (cheeks, lips, oropharynx) in suspected caustic ingestion: may endoscopy reasonably be omitted in completely negative pediatric patients?. Pediatr Emerg Care 1990; 6:176-178.
- Proctor NH & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 2nd ed, JB Lippincott Co, Philadelphia, PA, 1988, pp 274-757.
- Proctor NH & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, JB Lippincott Co, Philadelphia, PA, 1978, pp 286-287.
- Product Information: dopamine hcl, 5% dextrose IV injection, dopamine hcl, 5% dextrose IV injection. Hospira,Inc, Lake Forest, IL, 2004.
- Product Information: norepinephrine bitartrate injection, norepinephrine bitartrate injection. Sicor Pharmaceuticals,Inc, Irvine, CA, 2005.
- RTECS : Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 1988; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
- RTECS : Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 2001; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
- Reyes HM, Lin CY, & Schluhk FF: Experimental treatment of corrosive esophageal burns. J Pediatr Surg 1974; 9:317-327.
- River City: Protective Wear Product Literature, River City, Memphis, TN, 1995.
- Rosenberg N, Kunderman PJ, & Vroman L: Prevention of experimental esophageal stricture by cortisone II. Arch Surg 1953; 66:593-598.
- Rosenthal T, Baum GL, & Frand U: Poisoning caused by inhalation of hydrogen chloride, phosphorus oxychloride, phosphorus pentachloride, oxalyl chloride, and oxalic acid. Chest 1978; 73:623-626.
- Saedi S, Nyhus LM, & Gabrys BF: Pharmacological prevention of esophageal stricture: an experimental study in the cat. Am Surg 1973a; 39:465-469.
- Saedi S, Nyhust LM, & Gabrys BF: Pharmacological prevention of esophageal stricture: an experimental study in the cat. Am Surg 1973; 39:465-469.
- Safety 4: North Safety Products: Chemical Protection Guide. North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.safety4.com/guide/set_guide.htm. As accessed 8/14/2002.
- Saniotskiy IV: Gig Trud Prof Zabol 1976; 1:25-28.
- Sax NI & Lewis RJ: Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 7th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1989.
- Sax NI: Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 6th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1984, pp 1549-1550.
- Schild JA: Caustic ingestion in adult patients. Laryngoscope 1985; 95:1199-1201.
- Sellakumar AR, Snyder CA, & Solomon JJ: Carcinogenicity of formaldehyde and hydrogen chloride in rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1985; 81:401-406.
- Servus: Norcross Safety Products, Servus Rubber, Servus, Rock Island, IL, 1995.
- Shinozawa Y, Hales C, & Jung W: Ibuprofen prevents synthetic smoke-induced pulmonary edema. Am Rev Respir Dis 1986; 134:1145-1148.
- Sittig M: Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens, 2nd ed, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1985, pp 505-506.
- Sittig M: Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens, 3rd ed, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1991.
- Standard Safety Equipment: Product Literature, Standard Safety Equipment, McHenry, IL, 1995.
- Stentoft J: The toxicity of cytarabine. Drug Saf 1990; 5:7-27.
- Stolbach A & Hoffman RS: Respiratory Principles. In: Nelson LS, Hoffman RS, Lewin NA, et al, eds. Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies, 9th ed. McGraw Hill Medical, New York, NY, 2011.
- Sugawa C & Lucas CE: Caustic injury of the upper gastrointestinal tract in adults: a clinical and endoscopic study. Surgery 1989; 106:802-807.
- Szerlip HM & Singer I: Hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis after chlorine inhalation. Am J Med 1984; 77:581-582.
- Tingley: Chemical Degradation for Footwear and Clothing. Tingley. South Plainfield, NJ. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.tingleyrubber.com/tingley/Guide_ChemDeg.pdf. As accessed 10/16/2002.
- Tou JC & Kallow GJ: Study of aqueous HCl and formaldehyde mixtures for formation of bis(chloromethyl) ether. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1974; 35:419-422.
- Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.: Chemical and Biological Tests (database). Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.. Portsmouth, NH. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.trelleborg.com/protective/. As accessed 10/18/2002.
- Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.: Trellchem Chemical Protective Suits, Interactive manual & Chemical Database. Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.. Portsmouth, NH. 2001.
- U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management: Protective Action Criteria (PAC) with AEGLs, ERPGs, & TEELs: Rev. 26 for chemicals of concern. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.hss.doe.gov/HealthSafety/WSHP/Chem_Safety/teel.html. As accessed 2011-06-27.
- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project : 11th Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/INDEXA5E1.HTM?objectid=32BA9724-F1F6-975E-7FCE50709CB4C932. As accessed 2011-06-27.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Discarded commercial chemical products, off-specification species, container residues, and spill residues thereof. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities 2010b; 40CFR(261.33, e-f):77-.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2011. Available from URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/index.cfm?fuseaction=iris.showSubstanceList&list_type=date. As accessed 2011-06-21.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of Radionuclides. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010a. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: The list of extremely hazardous substances and their threshold planning quantities (CAS Number Order). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010c. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-part355.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.
- U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Part 1910 - Occupational safety and health standards (continued) Occupational Safety, and Health Administration's (OSHA) list of highly hazardous chemicals, toxics and reactives. Subpart Z - toxic and hazardous substances. CFR 2010 2010; Vol6(SEC1910):7-.
- U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA): Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals. 29 CFR 2010 2010; 29(1910.119):348-.
- United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Vinyl Acetate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6af&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
- Urben PG: Bretherick's Reactive Chemical Hazards Database, Version 2.0, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, UK, 2000.
- Vergauwen P, Moulin D, & Buts JP: Caustic burns of the upper digestive and respiratory tracts. Eur J Pediatr 1991; 150:700-703.
- Wells Lamont Industrial: Chemical Resistant Glove Application Chart. Wells Lamont Industrial. Morton Grove, IL. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.wellslamontindustry.com. As accessed 10/31/2002.
- Willson DF, Truwit JD, Conaway MR, et al: The Adult Calfactant in Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (CARDS) Trial. Chest 2015; Epub:Epub.
- Wilson DF, Thomas NJ, Markovitz BP, et al: Effect of exogenous surfactant (calfactant) in pediatric acute lung injury. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005; 293:470-476.
- Workrite: Chemical Splash Protection Garments, Technical Data and Application Guide, W.L. Gore Material Chemical Resistance Guide, Workrite, Oxnard, CA, 1997.
- Wu M & Lai W: Surgical management of extensive corrosive injuries of the alimentary tract. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1993; 177:12-16.
- Wu MH & Lai WW: Surgical management of extensive corrosive injuries of the alimentary tract. Surg Gynecol Obstetr 1993a; 177:12-16.
- Yarington CT & Heatly CA: Steroids, antibiotics, and early esophagoscopy in caustic esophageal trauma. N Y State J Med 1963; 63:2960-2963.
- Zargar SA, Kochhar R, & Mehta S: The role of fiberoptic endoscopy in the management of corrosive ingestion and modified endoscopic classification of burns. Gastrointest Endosc 1991; 37:165-169.
- Zargar SA, Kochhar R, & Nagi B: Ingestion of corrosive acids: spectrum of injury to upper gastrointestinal tract and natural history. Gastroenterology 1989a; 97:702-707.
- Zargar SA, Kochhar R, & Naji B: Ingestion of corrosive acids: spectrum of injury to upper gastrointestinal tract and natural history. Gastroenterology 1989; 97:702-707.
- Zitnik RJ & Cooper JA: Pulmonary disease due to antirheumatic agents. Clin Chest Med 1990; 11:139-150.
|