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ETHYLENEIMINE

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Classification   |    Detailed evidence-based information

Substances Included Synonyms

Therapeutic Toxic Class

    A) Ethyleneimine is an aliphatic amine compound.

Specific Substances

    A) No Synonyms were found in group or single elements
    1.2.1) MOLECULAR FORMULA
    1) C2-H5-N

Available Forms Sources

    A) FORMS
    1) It is an alkylating agent which is particularly reactive with sulfhydryl groups (Grant, 1986)
    B) USES
    1) Ethyleneimine is used in the manufacture of triethylenemelamine and as an intermediate in organic synthesis for the production of taurine, agricultural chemicals, dyes, modifiers for textiles, and polyethyleneimine (ACGIH, 1991a; Clayton & Clayton, 1994a; Gosselin et al, 1984; ITI, 1985a; Budavari, 1989a)
    2) Ethyleneimine polymerization products are used as flocculation aids and in the paper industry (EPA, 1985; Hathaway et al, 1991)The compound itself is used in textile chemicals, binders, adhesives, agricultural chemicals, lubricants, fuels, chemicals for petroleum refining, coating resins, lacquers and varnishes, cosmetics, ion exchange resins, surfactants, and chemicals used in photographic processes (EPA, 1985)

Overview

Life Support

    A) This overview assumes that basic life support measures have been instituted.

Clinical Effects

    0.2.1) SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
    A) Ethyleneimine is an eye and mucous membrane irritant. Acute effects may be delayed in onset by up to 3 hours. Coughing may persist for weeks or months after exposure.
    B) Skin contact may cause painless, slowly healing, necrotic burns or dermatitis with vesiculations. Dermal sensitization may occur.
    C) Ethyleneimine is a SUSPECTED HUMAN CARCINOGEN.
    0.2.4) HEENT
    A) Irritation of eyes, nose, and throat may occur.
    B) Corneal damage may occur.
    0.2.6) RESPIRATORY
    A) Respiratory tract irritation with coughing and possible delayed pulmonary edema may develop.
    0.2.7) NEUROLOGIC
    A) CNS effects have been seen in exposed workers and animals.
    0.2.8) GASTROINTESTINAL
    A) Nausea and vomiting may occur. Irritation or burns of the esophagus or GI tract could develop following ingestion.
    0.2.10) GENITOURINARY
    A) Nephrotoxicity has been described in experimental animals.
    0.2.13) HEMATOLOGIC
    A) Bone marrow depression might develop.
    0.2.14) DERMATOLOGIC
    A) Dermal irritation or burns may be seen. This agent is absorbed through the skin. Dermal sensitization may occur.
    0.2.20) REPRODUCTIVE
    A) At the time of this review, no studies were found on the possible human reproductive effects of ethyleneimine.
    B) ANIMAL STUDIES - Developmental and paternal effects have been noted in experimental animals.
    0.2.21) CARCINOGENICITY
    A) No evidence of carcinogenicity has been found in exposed humans.

Laboratory Monitoring

    A) Monitor CBC, urinalysis, and liver and kidney function tests in patients with significant exposure.
    B) Monitor arterial blood gases, chest x-ray, and pulmonary function tests in symptomatic patients.
    C) Specific medical surveillance is required by OSHA for employees working in regulated areas where ethyleneimine is present.

Treatment Overview

    0.4.2) ORAL/PARENTERAL EXPOSURE
    A) DO NOT INDUCE EMESIS
    1) DILUTION: If no respiratory compromise is present, administer milk or water as soon as possible after ingestion. Dilution may only be helpful if performed in the first seconds to minutes after ingestion. The ideal amount is unknown; no more than 8 ounces (240 mL) in adults and 4 ounces (120 mL) in children is recommended to minimize the risk of vomiting.
    B) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL: Administer charcoal as a slurry (240 mL water/30 g charcoal). Usual dose: 25 to 100 g in adults/adolescents, 25 to 50 g in children (1 to 12 years), and 1 g/kg in infants less than 1 year old.
    C) Observe patients with ingestion carefully for the possible development of esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation or burns. If signs or symptoms of esophageal irritation or burns are present, consider endoscopy to determine the extent of injury.
    D) Carefully observe patients with ingestion exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    0.4.3) INHALATION EXPOSURE
    A) INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
    B) If bronchospasm and wheezing occur, consider treatment with inhaled sympathomimetic agents.
    C) Respiratory tract irritation, if severe, can progress to pulmonary edema which may be delayed in onset up to 24 to 72 hours after exposure in some cases.
    D) ACUTE LUNG INJURY: Maintain ventilation and oxygenation and evaluate with frequent arterial blood gases and/or pulse oximetry monitoring. Early use of PEEP and mechanical ventilation may be needed.
    0.4.4) EYE EXPOSURE
    A) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.
    B) Prolonged initial flushing and early ophthalmologic consultation may be advisable.
    0.4.5) DERMAL EXPOSURE
    A) OVERVIEW
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
    2) Treat dermal irritation or burns with standard topical therapy. Patients developing dermal hypersensitivity reactions may require treatment with systemic or topical corticosteroids or antihistamines.

Range Of Toxicity

    A) Workers exposed to an undetermined vapor concentration for 2 to 3 minutes developed vomiting and nasal and eye irritation.

Clinical Effects

Summary Of Exposure

    A) Ethyleneimine is an eye and mucous membrane irritant. Acute effects may be delayed in onset by up to 3 hours. Coughing may persist for weeks or months after exposure.
    B) Skin contact may cause painless, slowly healing, necrotic burns or dermatitis with vesiculations. Dermal sensitization may occur.
    C) Ethyleneimine is a SUSPECTED HUMAN CARCINOGEN.

Vital Signs

    3.3.3) TEMPERATURE
    A) FEVER - Elevated temperature may be noted following inhalation exposure (ITI, 1985; Gosselin et al, 1984a).

Heent

    3.4.1) SUMMARY
    A) Irritation of eyes, nose, and throat may occur.
    B) Corneal damage may occur.
    3.4.3) EYES
    A) CONJUNCTIVITIS - Eye irritation may be seen (Grant, 1986a). Inflammation may persist for months (Clayton & Clayton, 1994). Corneal injury may develop (ITI, 1985).
    1) Ethyleneimine induced unreported amounts of eye irritation in the mouse and severe eye irritation in the rabbit in the Standard Draize Test (RTECS, 1996).
    3.4.5) NOSE
    A) IRRITATION - Irritation of the mucosa of the nose and throat may develop with vapor exposure (ITI, 1985; Gosselin et al, 1984a).
    3.4.6) THROAT
    A) IRRITATION - Irritation of the mucosa of the nose and throat may develop with vapor exposure (ITI, 1985; Gosselin et al, 1984a).

Respiratory

    3.6.1) SUMMARY
    A) Respiratory tract irritation with coughing and possible delayed pulmonary edema may develop.
    3.6.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Inhalation may cause cough, fever, and decreased vital capacity on pulmonary function testing, with onset delayed by up to several hours (ITI, 1985; Gosselin et al, 1984a).
    B) ACUTE LUNG INJURY
    1) Acute lung injury (noncardiogenic pulmonary edema) might occur with significant inhalation exposure, or from exposure to oxides of nitrogen evolved during thermal decomposition (Gosselin et al, 1984a; ACGIH, 1991; AAR, 1987).
    C) COUGH
    1) Coughing may be persistent for weeks or months after exposure (Gosselin et al, 1984a).
    D) INJURY OF UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
    1) CARTILAGE INJURY/UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT ULCERATION - Profound destruction of tracheobronchial cartilage was noted at autopsy in fatal cases (Gresham & West, 1975; Jones & Farman, 1976). Ulceration of the upper respiratory tract occurred in one episode of acute inhalation exposure (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).

Neurologic

    3.7.1) SUMMARY
    A) CNS effects have been seen in exposed workers and animals.
    3.7.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM FINDING
    1) CNS effects have been described in exposed workers (ACGIH, 1991).
    3.7.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    a) Death from massive acute overexposures in animals are usually from CNS effects (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).

Gastrointestinal

    3.8.1) SUMMARY
    A) Nausea and vomiting may occur. Irritation or burns of the esophagus or GI tract could develop following ingestion.
    3.8.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) NAUSEA AND VOMITING
    1) Nausea and vomiting may occur (ITI, 1985).
    B) GASTROINTESTINAL IRRITATION
    1) Although not reported, irritation or burns of the esophagus or gastrointestinal tract may be predicted based on this agent's other irritant properties.

Genitourinary

    3.10.1) SUMMARY
    A) Nephrotoxicity has been described in experimental animals.
    3.10.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) ABNORMAL RENAL FUNCTION
    1) NEPHROTOXICITY has been described following dermal or inhalation exposure in workers (ACGIH, 1991).
    3.10.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    a) Kidney injury with albuminuria, proteinuria, and elevated blood urea nitrogen has been described in exposed experimental animals (ITI, 1985; ACGIH, 1991).
    1) Exposed dogs developed papillary damage followed by secondary cortical defects (Ellis et al, 1973). An early decrease in urine specific gravity following exposure was correlated with renal papillary injury in dogs (Ellis et al, 1973).

Hematologic

    3.13.1) SUMMARY
    A) Bone marrow depression might develop.
    3.13.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) MYELOSUPPRESSION
    1) Bone marrow depression may develop (ACGIH, 1991).

Dermatologic

    3.14.1) SUMMARY
    A) Dermal irritation or burns may be seen. This agent is absorbed through the skin. Dermal sensitization may occur.
    3.14.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) CHEMICAL BURN
    1) Skin contact may cause relatively painless, slowly healing, severe, necrotic burns or dermatitis with possible vesiculations (Gosselin et al, 1984a; ACGIH, 1991) CHRIS, 1996).
    B) DERMATITIS
    1) Dermal sensitization may occur (Lewis, 1992; ACGIH, 1991).
    C) SKIN ABSORPTION
    1) The liquid is absorbed when applied directly to the skin, but percutaneous absorption from vapor exposure probably does not occur (Carpenter et al, 1948).
    3.14.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    a) Ethyleneimine induced an unreported degree of skin irritation in the rabbit in the Open Draize Test (RTECS, 1996).

Reproductive

    3.20.1) SUMMARY
    A) At the time of this review, no studies were found on the possible human reproductive effects of ethyleneimine.
    B) ANIMAL STUDIES - Developmental and paternal effects have been noted in experimental animals.
    3.20.2) TERATOGENICITY
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) Specific developmental abnormalities of the central nervous system, eye, ear, and craniofacial (including nose and tongue) areas were observed in mouse studies (RTECS, 1996).
    2) Toxic effects on the embryo or fetus (extra embryonic structures) and fetal death were observed in mouse studies (RTECS, 1996).
    3) An adverse effect has been shown on the embryo in experimental animals (ACGIH, 1991).
    3.20.3) EFFECTS IN PREGNANCY
    A) LACK OF INFORMATION
    1) At the time of this review, no data were available to assess the potential effects of exposure to this agent during pregnancy or lactation.

Carcinogenicity

    3.21.1) IARC CATEGORY
    A) IARC Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS151-56-4 (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004):
    1) IARC Classification
    a) Listed as: Aziridine
    b) Carcinogen Rating: 2B
    1) The agent (mixture) is possibly carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are possibly carcinogenic to humans. This category is used for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which there is limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and less than sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. It may also be used when there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans but there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. In some instances, an agent, mixture or exposure circumstance for which there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans but limited evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals together with supporting evidence from other relevant data may be placed in this group.
    3.21.2) SUMMARY/HUMAN
    A) No evidence of carcinogenicity has been found in exposed humans.
    3.21.3) HUMAN STUDIES
    A) OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE
    1) CARCINOMA
    a) SUMMARY - This agent is listed by NIOSH as a suspected occupational carcinogen (Clayton & Clayton, 1994; NIOSH , 1996).
    2) LACK OF EFFECT
    a) After up to 40 years of industrial exposure, no evidence of carcinogenicity from ethyleneimine was found in a group of 144 workers (IARC, 1991).
    3.21.4) ANIMAL STUDIES
    A) TUMORS
    1) In experimental animals, ethyleneimine has been determined to be an equivocal tumorigenic agent by RTECS criteria, neoplastic by RTECS criteria, and carcinogenic by RTECS criteria. Tumors were observed in the rat (subcutaneous cells) and mouse in vivo (liver and lung cells) (RTECS, 1996).
    2) Ethyleneimine has induced sarcomas and fibromas at injection sites, as well as tumors of the pancreas, mammary gland, and kidneys in rats (Lassiter, 1987).

Genotoxicity

    A) Ethyleneimine is a potent alkylating agent which has been strongly mutagenic in every investigated system. DNA damage, synthesis, and inhibition, and mutagenic effects have been noted in experimental animals.

Laboratory Monitoring

Monitoring Parameters Levels

    4.1.1) SUMMARY
    A) Monitor CBC, urinalysis, and liver and kidney function tests in patients with significant exposure.
    B) Monitor arterial blood gases, chest x-ray, and pulmonary function tests in symptomatic patients.
    C) Specific medical surveillance is required by OSHA for employees working in regulated areas where ethyleneimine is present.
    4.1.2) SERUM/BLOOD
    A) BLOOD/SERUM CHEMISTRY
    1) A number of chemicals produce abnormalities of the hematopoietic system, liver, and kidneys. Monitoring complete blood count and liver and kidney function tests is suggested for patients with significant exposure.
    4.1.3) URINE
    A) URINALYSIS
    1) A number of chemicals produce abnormalities of the hematopoietic system, liver, and kidneys. Monitoring urinalysis is suggested for patients with significant exposure.
    4.1.4) OTHER
    A) OTHER
    1) PULMONARY FUNCTION TESTS
    a) If respiratory tract irritation is present, it may be useful to monitor pulmonary function tests.
    2) OSHA MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE METHODS (OSHA, 1990) - At no cost to the employee, a program of medical surveillance shall be established and implemented for employees considered for assignment to enter regulated areas, and for authorized employees.
    a) EXAMINATIONS -
    1) Before an employee is assigned to enter a regulated area, a preassignment physical examination by a physician shall be provided. The examination shall include the personal history of the employee, family and occupational background, including genetic and environmental factors.
    2) Authorized employees shall be provided periodic physical examinations, not less often than annually, following the preassignment examination.
    3) In all physical examinations, the examining physician shall consider whether there exist conditions of increased risk, including reduced immunological competence, those undergoing treatment with steroids or cytotoxic agents, pregnancy and cigarette smoking.
    b) RECORDS -
    1) Employers of employees examined pursuant to this paragraph shall cause to be maintained complete and accurate records of all such medical examinations. Records shall be maintained for the duration of the employee's employment. Upon termination of the employee's employment, including retirement or death, or in the event that the employer ceases business without a successor, records, or notarized true copies thereof, shall be forwarded by registered mail to the Director.
    2) Records required by this paragraph shall be provided upon request to employees, designated representatives, and the Assistant Secretary in accordance with 29 CFR 1910.20 (a)-(e) and (g)-(i). These records shall also be provided upon request to the Director.
    3) Any physician who conducts a medical examination required by this paragraph shall furnish to the employer a statement of the employee's suitability for employment in the specific exposure.

Radiographic Studies

    A) CHEST RADIOGRAPH
    1) If respiratory tract irritation is present, monitor chest x-ray.

Methods

    A) CHROMATOGRAPHY
    1) A high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) procedure has been described that can determine trace quantities of ethyleneimine down to concentrations of 0.01 ppm (Evans et al, 1975). This procedure has not been adapted for biological specimens.

Treatment

Life Support

    A) Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

Patient Disposition

    6.3.1) DISPOSITION/ORAL EXPOSURE
    6.3.1.5) OBSERVATION CRITERIA/ORAL
    A) Patients symptomatic following exposure should be observed in a controlled setting until all signs and symptoms have fully resolved.

Monitoring

    A) Monitor CBC, urinalysis, and liver and kidney function tests in patients with significant exposure.
    B) Monitor arterial blood gases, chest x-ray, and pulmonary function tests in symptomatic patients.
    C) Specific medical surveillance is required by OSHA for employees working in regulated areas where ethyleneimine is present.

Oral Exposure

    6.5.1) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION/PREHOSPITAL
    A) GENERAL
    1) Move victims of inhalation exposure from the toxic environment and administer 100% humidified supplemental oxygen with assisted ventilation as required. Carefully monitor for the delayed development of pulmonary edema. Exposed skin and eyes should be copiously flushed.
    2) Ingestion could cause esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation. Induced emesis should be avoided. Immediate dilution with milk or water might be beneficial.
    B) ORAL EXPOSURE
    1) Do NOT induce emesis.
    2) DILUTION: If no respiratory compromise is present, administer milk or water as soon as possible after ingestion. Dilution may only be helpful if performed in the first seconds to minutes after ingestion. The ideal amount is unknown; no more than 8 ounces (240 mL) in adults and 4 ounces (120 mL) in children is recommended to minimize the risk of vomiting.
    3) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL: Administer charcoal as a slurry (240 mL water/30 g charcoal). Usual dose: 25 to 100 g in adults/adolescents, 25 to 50 g in children (1 to 12 years), and 1 g/kg in infants less than 1 year old.
    4) Observe patients with ingestion carefully for the possible development of esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation or burns. If signs or symptoms of esophageal irritation or burns are present, consider endoscopy to determine the extent of injury.
    5) A number of chemicals produce abnormalities of the hematopoietic system, liver, and kidneys. Monitoring complete blood count, urinalysis, and liver and kidney function tests is suggested for patients with significant exposure.
    6) Carefully observe patients with ingestion exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    C) INHALATION EXPOSURE
    1) INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
    2) If respiratory tract irritation or respiratory depression is evident, monitor arterial blood gases, chest x-ray, and pulmonary function tests.
    3) If bronchospasm and wheezing occur, consider treatment with inhaled sympathomimetic agents.
    4) Respiratory tract irritation, if severe, can progress to pulmonary edema which may be delayed in onset up to 24 to 72 hours after exposure in some cases.
    5) ACUTE LUNG INJURY: Maintain ventilation and oxygenation and evaluate with frequent arterial blood gases and/or pulse oximetry monitoring. Early use of PEEP and mechanical ventilation may be needed.
    D) EYE EXPOSURE
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.
    2) Because of the potential for severe corneal irritation or damage, prolonged initial flushing and early ophthalmologic consultation may be advisable.
    E) DERMAL EXPOSURE -
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
    2) Treat dermal irritation or burns with standard topical therapy. Patients developing dermal hypersensitivity reactions may require treatment with systemic or topical corticosteroids or antihistamines.
    6.5.2) PREVENTION OF ABSORPTION
    A) EMESIS/NOT RECOMMENDED
    1) Do NOT induce emesis.
    B) ACTIVATED CHARCOAL
    1) CHARCOAL ADMINISTRATION
    a) Consider administration of activated charcoal after a potentially toxic ingestion (Chyka et al, 2005). Administer charcoal as an aqueous slurry; most effective when administered within one hour of ingestion.
    2) CHARCOAL DOSE
    a) Use a minimum of 240 milliliters of water per 30 grams charcoal (FDA, 1985). Optimum dose not established; usual dose is 25 to 100 grams in adults and adolescents; 25 to 50 grams in children aged 1 to 12 years (or 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram body weight) ; and 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram in infants up to 1 year old (Chyka et al, 2005).
    1) Routine use of a cathartic with activated charcoal is NOT recommended as there is no evidence that cathartics reduce drug absorption and cathartics are known to cause adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, electrolyte imbalances and occasionally hypotension (None Listed, 2004).
    b) ADVERSE EFFECTS/CONTRAINDICATIONS
    1) Complications: emesis, aspiration (Chyka et al, 2005). Aspiration may be complicated by acute respiratory failure, ARDS, bronchiolitis obliterans or chronic lung disease (Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002; Pollack et al, 1981; Harris & Filandrinos, 1993; Elliot et al, 1989; Rau et al, 1988; Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002). Refer to the ACTIVATED CHARCOAL/TREATMENT management for further information.
    2) Contraindications: unprotected airway (increases risk/severity of aspiration) , nonfunctioning gastrointestinal tract, uncontrolled vomiting, and ingestion of most hydrocarbons (Chyka et al, 2005).
    6.5.3) TREATMENT
    A) DILUTION
    1) DILUTION: If no respiratory compromise is present, administer milk or water as soon as possible after ingestion. Dilution may only be helpful if performed in the first seconds to minutes after ingestion. The ideal amount is unknown; no more than 8 ounces (240 mL) in adults and 4 ounces (120 mL) in children is recommended to minimize the risk of vomiting (Caravati, 2004).
    B) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Observe patients with ingestion carefully for the possible development of esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation or burns. If signs or symptoms of esophageal irritation or burns are present, consider endoscopy to determine the extent of injury.
    C) OBSERVATION REGIMES
    1) Carefully observe patients with ingestion exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    2) Patients symptomatic following exposure should be observed in a controlled setting until all signs and symptoms have fully resolved.
    D) MONITORING OF PATIENT
    1) Monitor renal functions and urinalysis in patients with significant exposure.

Inhalation Exposure

    6.7.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) Move patient from the toxic environment to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty in breathing develops, evaluate for hypoxia, respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis.
    B) OBSERVATION: Carefully observe patients with inhalation exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    C) INITIAL TREATMENT: Administer 100% humidified supplemental oxygen, perform endotracheal intubation and provide assisted ventilation as required. Administer inhaled beta-2 adrenergic agonists, if bronchospasm develops. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm (National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute, 2007). Exposed skin and eyes should be flushed with copious amounts of water.
    6.7.2) TREATMENT
    A) BRONCHOSPASM
    1) If bronchospasm and wheezing occur, consider treatment with inhaled sympathomimetic agents.
    B) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Respiratory tract irritation, if severe, can progress to noncardiogenic pulmonary edema which may be delayed in onset up to 24 to 72 hours after exposure in some cases.
    2) There are no controlled studies indicating that early administration of corticosteroids can prevent the development of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema in patients with inhalation exposure to respiratory irritant substances, and long-term use may cause adverse effects (Boysen & Modell, 1989).
    a) However, based on anecdotal experience, some clinicians do recommend early administration of corticosteroids (such as methylprednisolone 1 gram intravenously as a single dose) in an attempt to prevent the later development of pulmonary edema.
    1) Anecdotal experience with dimethyl sulfate inhalation showed possible benefit of methylprednisolone in the TREATMENT of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema (Ip et al, 1989).
    3) Anecdotal experience also indicated that systemic corticosteroids may have possible efficacy in the TREATMENT of drug-induced noncardiogenic pulmonary edema (Zitnik & Cooper, 1990; Stentoft, 1990; Chudnofsky & Otten, 1989) or noncardiogenic pulmonary edema developing after cardiopulmonary bypass (Maggart & Stewart, 1987).
    4) It is not clear from the published literature that administration of systemic corticosteroids early following inhalation exposure to respiratory irritant substances can PREVENT the development of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. The decision to administer or withhold corticosteroids in this setting must currently be made on clinical grounds.
    C) ACUTE LUNG INJURY
    1) ONSET: Onset of acute lung injury after toxic exposure may be delayed up to 24 to 72 hours after exposure in some cases.
    2) NON-PHARMACOLOGIC TREATMENT: The treatment of acute lung injury is primarily supportive (Cataletto, 2012). Maintain adequate ventilation and oxygenation with frequent monitoring of arterial blood gases and/or pulse oximetry. If a high FIO2 is required to maintain adequate oxygenation, mechanical ventilation and positive-end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) may be required; ventilation with small tidal volumes (6 mL/kg) is preferred if ARDS develops (Haas, 2011; Stolbach & Hoffman, 2011).
    a) To minimize barotrauma and other complications, use the lowest amount of PEEP possible while maintaining adequate oxygenation. Use of smaller tidal volumes (6 mL/kg) and lower plateau pressures (30 cm water or less) has been associated with decreased mortality and more rapid weaning from mechanical ventilation in patients with ARDS (Brower et al, 2000). More treatment information may be obtained from ARDS Clinical Network website, NIH NHLBI ARDS Clinical Network Mechanical Ventilation Protocol Summary, http://www.ardsnet.org/node/77791 (NHLBI ARDS Network, 2008)
    3) FLUIDS: Crystalloid solutions must be administered judiciously. Pulmonary artery monitoring may help. In general the pulmonary artery wedge pressure should be kept relatively low while still maintaining adequate cardiac output, blood pressure and urine output (Stolbach & Hoffman, 2011).
    4) ANTIBIOTICS: Indicated only when there is evidence of infection (Artigas et al, 1998).
    5) EXPERIMENTAL THERAPY: Partial liquid ventilation has shown promise in preliminary studies (Kollef & Schuster, 1995).
    6) CALFACTANT: In a multicenter, randomized, blinded trial, endotracheal instillation of 2 doses of 80 mL/m(2) calfactant (35 mg/mL of phospholipid suspension in saline) in infants, children, and adolescents with acute lung injury resulted in acute improvement in oxygenation and lower mortality; however, no significant decrease in the course of respiratory failure measured by duration of ventilator therapy, intensive care unit, or hospital stay was noted. Adverse effects (transient hypoxia and hypotension) were more frequent in calfactant patients, but these effects were mild and did not require withdrawal from the study (Wilson et al, 2005).
    7) However, in a multicenter, randomized, controlled, and masked trial, endotracheal instillation of up to 3 doses of calfactant (30 mg) in adults only with acute lung injury/ARDS due to direct lung injury was not associated with improved oxygenation and longer term benefits compared to the placebo group. It was also associated with significant increases in hypoxia and hypotension (Willson et al, 2015).
    D) MONITORING OF PATIENT
    1) Monitor arterial blood gases and chest x-ray in patients with significant inhalation exposure or respiratory tract irritation.
    E) OBSERVATION REGIMES
    1) Carefully observe patients with inhalation exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    F) Treatment should include recommendations listed in the ORAL EXPOSURE section when appropriate.

Eye Exposure

    6.8.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) EYE IRRIGATION, ROUTINE: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, an ophthalmologic examination should be performed (Peate, 2007; Naradzay & Barish, 2006).
    6.8.2) TREATMENT
    A) GENERAL TREATMENT
    1) CONSULTATION - Because of potential for corneal damage, prolonged initial flushing and early ophthalmologic consultation may be advisable.
    B) Treatment should include recommendations listed in the ORAL EXPOSURE section when appropriate.

Dermal Exposure

    6.9.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) DERMAL DECONTAMINATION
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and wash exposed area thoroughly with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
    6.9.2) TREATMENT
    A) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Treat dermal irritation or burns with standard topical therapy. Patients developing dermal hypersensitivity reactions may require treatment with systemic or topical corticosteroids or antihistamines.
    B) SKIN ABSORPTION
    1) Some chemicals can produce systemic poisoning by absorption through intact skin. Carefully observe patients with dermal exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    C) Treatment should include recommendations listed in the ORAL EXPOSURE section when appropriate.

Enhanced Elimination

    A) EFFICACY
    1) No studies have addressed the utilization of extracorporeal elimination techniques in poisoning with this agent.

Abstracts

Case Reports

    A) ROUTE OF EXPOSURE
    1) INHALATION
    a) Gresham & West (1975) described a fatal case of ethyleneimine poisoning. A worker inhaled vapors of ethyleneimine while dispensing the material at a chemical firm. Although there was a period of apparent recovery from the early symptoms of toxicity, the patient died. Profound destruction of tracheobronchial cartilage was noted at autopsy.

Range Of Toxicity

Summary

    A) Workers exposed to an undetermined vapor concentration for 2 to 3 minutes developed vomiting and nasal and eye irritation.

Minimum Lethal Exposure

    A) ANIMAL DATA
    1) Some experimental animals died after a 10 minute inhalation exposure to 2200 ppm (ACGIH, 1991). A four to eight hour inhalation exposure to 25 ppm killed some animals (ACGIH, 1991).

Maximum Tolerated Exposure

    A) ANIMAL DATA
    1) In animal experiments, all concentrations above 10 ppm caused eye and nasal irritation and respiratory difficulty (ACGIH, 1991).
    2) Leukopenia was produced in rats exposed to 0.6 and 6 ppm (ACGIH, 1991).
    B) OCCUPATIONAL
    1) Workers exposed to an undetermined vapor concentration for 2 to 3 minutes developed vomiting and nasal and eye irritation with delayed onset 3 hours later (ACGIH, 1991).

Workplace Standards

    A) ACGIH TLV Values for CAS151-56-4 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):
    1) Editor's Note: The listed values are recommendations or guidelines developed by ACGIH(R) to assist in the control of health hazards. They should only be used, interpreted and applied by individuals trained in industrial hygiene. Before applying these values, it is imperative to read the introduction to each section in the current TLVs(R) and BEI(R) Book and become familiar with the constraints and limitations to their use. Always consult the Documentation of the TLVs(R) and BEIs(R) before applying these recommendations and guidelines.
    a) Adopted Value
    1) Ethylenimine
    a) TLV:
    1) TLV-TWA: 0.05 ppm
    2) TLV-STEL: 0.1 ppm
    3) TLV-Ceiling:
    b) Notations and Endnotes:
    1) Carcinogenicity Category: A3
    2) Codes: Skin
    3) Definitions:
    a) A3: Confirmed Animal Carcinogen with Unknown Relevance to Humans: The agent is carcinogenic in experimental animals at a relatively high dose, by route(s) of administration, at site(s), of histologic type(s), or by mechanism(s) that may not be relevant to worker exposure. Available epidemiologic studies do not confirm an increased risk of cancer in exposed humans. Available evidence does not suggest that the agent is likely to cause cancer in humans except under uncommon or unlikely routes or levels of exposure.
    b) Skin: This refers to the potential significant contribution to the overall exposure by the cutaneous route, including mucous membranes and the eyes, either by contact with vapors or, of likely greater significance, by direct skin contact with the substance. It should be noted that although some materials are capable of causing irritation, dermatitis, and sensitization in workers, these properties are not considered relevant when assigning a skin notation. Rather, data from acute dermal studies and repeated dose dermal studies in animals or humans, along with the ability of the chemical to be absorbed, are integrated in the decision-making toward assignment of the skin designation. Use of the skin designation provides an alert that air sampling would not be sufficient by itself in quantifying exposure from the substance and that measures to prevent significant cutaneous absorption may be warranted. Please see "Definitions and Notations" (in TLV booklet) for full definition.
    c) TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): URT irr; liver and kidney dam
    d) Molecular Weight: 43.08
    1) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3):
    a) [(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45
    2) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm:
    a) [(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance
    e) Additional information:

    B) NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS151-56-4 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):
    1) Listed as: Ethyleneimine
    2) REL:
    a) TWA:
    b) STEL:
    c) Ceiling:
    d) Carcinogen Listing: (Ca) NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards).
    e) Skin Designation: Not Listed
    f) Note(s): See Appendix A
    3) IDLH:
    a) IDLH: 100 ppm
    b) Note(s): Ca
    1) Ca: NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A).

    C) Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS151-56-4 :
    1) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A3 ; Listed as: Ethylenimine
    a) A3 :Confirmed Animal Carcinogen with Unknown Relevance to Humans: The agent is carcinogenic in experimental animals at a relatively high dose, by route(s) of administration, at site(s), of histologic type(s), or by mechanism(s) that may not be relevant to worker exposure. Available epidemiologic studies do not confirm an increased risk of cancer in exposed humans. Available evidence does not suggest that the agent is likely to cause cancer in humans except under uncommon or unlikely routes or levels of exposure.
    2) EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): Not Assessed under the IRIS program. ; Listed as: Ethyleneimine
    3) IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): 2B ; Listed as: Aziridine
    a) 2B : The agent (mixture) is possibly carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are possibly carcinogenic to humans. This category is used for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which there is limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and less than sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. It may also be used when there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans but there is sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. In some instances, an agent, mixture or exposure circumstance for which there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans but limited evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals together with supporting evidence from other relevant data may be placed in this group.
    4) NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Ca ; Listed as: Ethyleneimine
    a) Ca : NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards).
    5) MAK (DFG, 2002): Category 2 ; Listed as: Ethylenimine
    a) Category 2 : Substances that are considered to be carcinogenic for man because sufficient data from long-term animal studies or limited evidence from animal studies substantiated by evidence from epidemiological studies indicate that they can make a significant contribution to cancer risk. Limited data from animal studies can be supported by evidence that the substance causes cancer by a mode of action that is relevant to man and by results of in vitro tests and short-term animal studies.
    6) NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): Not Listed

    D) OSHA PEL Values for CAS151-56-4 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):
    1) Listed as: Ethyleneimine; see 29 CFR 1910.1012
    2) Table Z-1 for Ethyleneimine; see 29 CFR 1910.1012:
    a) 8-hour TWA:
    1) ppm:
    a) Parts of vapor or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25 degrees C and 760 torr.
    2) mg/m3:
    a) Milligrams of substances per cubic meter of air. When entry is in this column only, the value is exact; when listed with a ppm entry, it is approximate.
    3) Ceiling Value:
    4) Skin Designation: No
    5) Notation(s): Not Listed

Toxicity Information

    7.7.1) TOXICITY VALUES
    A) References: (RTECS, 1996; Lewis, 1992
    1) LD50- (INTRAPERITONEAL)MOUSE:
    a) 4 mg/kg
    2) LD50- (INTRAPERITONEAL)RAT:
    a) 3500 mcg/kg
    b) 3.8 mg/kg
    3) LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
    a) 15 mg/kg

Pharmacology Toxicology

Toxicologic Mechanism

    A) Ethyleneimine is a direct irritant of the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes (ACGIH, 1991; Gosselin et al, 1984a).
    B) Ethyleneimine is an alkylating agent that binds to sulfhydryl groups (Grant, 1986a). It is also a direct alkylating agent with DNA (Gupta & Singh, 1982).
    C) Severe destruction of the tracheobronchial cartilage may occur following inhalation, which may be due to proteases liberated from the mucosal granulation tissues (Gresham & West, 1975).

Physicochemical

Physical Characteristics

    A) Ethyleneimine is a clear, colorless, volatile, flammable liquid with an intense fishy or ammonia-like odor (HSDB, 2005; Budavari, 1989; AAR, 1987; NFPA, 1986; ACGIH, 1991).

Molecular Weight

    A) 43.07

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