ETHYLENE DIBROMIDE

4909166 - Ethylene dibromide-methyl bromide mixture, liquid (insecticides, agricultural, not elsewhere classified, liquid)
4940335 - Ethylene dibromide

MOLECULAR FORMULA

C2H4Br2

ERG GUIDE NUMBER

154-SUBSTANCES - TOXIC and/or CORROSIVE (NON-COMBUSTIBLE)(for UN/NA Number1605)

SYNONYM REFERENCE

(CHRIS , 1999; HSDB , 1999; Lewis, 1996; RTECS , 1999)

USES/FORMS/SOURCES

USES

Ethylene dibromide is used as an antiknock additive in gasoline and as a soil/grain fumigant (Ashford, 1994). This compound is also used as an agricultural fumigant and industrial chemical. However, most agricultural uses have been banned in the United States since 1984 (Lewis, 1998). Ethylene dibromide is used as a scavenger for lead in gasoline, as a grain fumigant, as a general solvent, and as a fumigant for tree crops. It is also used for waterproofing preparations, and in the synthesis of dyes, pharmaceuticals, and other brominated compounds (ACGIH, 1991; Hathaway et al, 1996; Lewis, 1993).
This compound is used as a fumigant for ground pest control and as a constituent of ethyl gasoline. It may also be used in gauge fluids, fire extinguishers, in waterproofing preparations, and may be used as a solvent for celluloid, fats, oils, and waxes (Sittig, 1991). Ethylene dibromide is made from ethylene and bromine and can also be made from acetylene and hydrogen bromide (HBr) (Budavari, 1996).
Emulsifiable ethylene dibromide weighs 18.1 lbs/gallon (AAR, 1996).
Ethylene dibromide was banned from use for grain products and as a soil fumigant in the US in 1984 (Press Release, 1984).
Due to its low flammability in air, ethylene dibromide has been used as a fire extinguishing agent (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).

FORMS

Ethylene bromide is a colorless heavy liquid or a solid. It has a mildly sweet or chloroform odor (HSDB , 2002).

SOURCES

It is manufactured from ethylene and bromine; it is also made from acetylene and hydrobromic acid (HSDB , 2002).

-CLINICAL EFFECTS

GENERAL CLINICAL EFFECTS

Ethylene dibromide is toxic following ingestion, inhalation, and dermal contact. Rapid effects following ingestion are similar to those following inhalation of concentrated vapors and can include altered gastrointestinal motility, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, drowsiness, agitation, decreased urine output or anuria, chest pain, cough, and respiratory distress. Severe ingestions have resulted in acute hepatic and renal failure, metabolic acidosis and coagulopathy.

Unconsciousness and coma have occurred after brief inhalation exposure to vapors in confined spaces. Eye, mucous membrane, and respiratory tract irritation with pneumonia and delayed pulmonary edema can result from vapor inhalation.

Renal and hepatic damage or failure have resulted from ingestion and inhalation exposures in humans, and are suspected to occur following other routes of exposure, based on experimental animal studies. Cardiac arrest, and/or multiorgan failure have occurred in fatal cases and may result secondarily from hepatic necrosis, massive fluid losses, and/or electrolyte imbalance. Respiratory arrest can occur. Hypoglycemia, acidosis, and hematologic abnormalities have also been reported.

Liquid ethylene dibromide is an eye, mucous membrane, and skin irritant. Brief skin contact will cause erythema and discomfort. Blistering can result if the skin is not rapidly decontaminated. Chemical burns/blisters can occur following prolonged dermal exposure, especially if the site of contact is covered in a fashion which inhibits vaporization. Ethylene dibromide can be absorbed through the skin to produce systemic effects.

One study has shown adverse effects on the sperm of workers exposed to ethylene dibromide. Oral administration of ethylene bromide has been associated with testicular atrophy, abnormal sperm, and decreased sperm production in experimental animals.

Irritating bromide fumes can be released if ethylene dibromide is heated to decomposition.

POTENTIAL HEALTH HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)

TOXIC; inhalation, ingestion or skin contact with material may cause severe injury or death.
Contact with molten substance may cause severe burns to skin and eyes.
Avoid any skin contact.
Effects of contact or inhalation may be delayed.
Fire may produce irritating, corrosive and/or toxic gases.
Runoff from fire control or dilution water may be corrosive and/or toxic and cause pollution.

ACUTE CLINICAL EFFECTS

Ethylene dibromide (EDB) is quite toxic in humans. A dose of 4.5 mL was fatal when ingested; liver and kidney damage were evident at autopsy (ILO, 1983; ACGIH, 1991). There have been industrial fatalities (Letz et al, 1984). EDB is readily absorbed by the oral, inhalation, or dermal exposure routes (HSDB, 2004; Hayes & Laws, 1991a). Symptoms depend somewhat on the exposure route (ILO, 1983). Concentrations of EDB sufficient to induce anesthesia are usually lethal (ACGIH, 1991).

Liquid EDB is a severe skin, mucous membrane, and eye irritant, producing blistering and ulceration (ILO, 1983; HSDB, 2004; Hathaway et al, 1991). Inhalation produces lung damage, congestion, pulmonary edema, chemical pneumonia, and CNS depression.

Symptoms of CNS depression include nausea, headache, weakness, dizziness, loss of coordination and judgement, coma, and death in respiratory failure. When taken orally, EDB can cause liver and kidney damage, vomiting, and excitement and other CNS effects (ILO, 1983).

Of two men exposed to 0.1% to 0.3% EDB solution inside a tank, one was intermittently comatose and the other was combative and delirious. One died from cardiopulmonary arrest 12 hours after exposure, and the other of progressive liver damage and renal failure after 64 hours. Because the airborne level in the tank of 28 ppm was not deemed sufficiently high to account for the fatalities, they were attributed to dermal exposure of the solution in the tank (Hathaway et al, 1991; Hayes & Laws, 1991; Letz et al, 1984).

Death from acute exposure to EDB is usually from pneumonia secondary to lung injury (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).

EDB is metabolized by the cytochrome P450 system. Of 10 human P450 isozymes expressed in vitro, only CYP2E1, CYP2A6 and CYP2B6 metabolized EDB. Studies with specific inhibitors of CYP2E1 led to the tentative conclusion that this cytochrome is mainly responsible for the oxidation of EDB in humans (Wormhoudt et al, 1996). The main metabolite of the cytochrome P450 system is bromoacetaldehyde, but the hepatotoxicity and mutagenicity are evidently due to S-2-bromoethylglutathione, formed in the cytosolic fraction (Hayes & Laws, 1991).

CHRONIC CLINICAL EFFECTS

In an industry-wide exposure study, NIOSH found that typical airborne EDB concentrations range from 10 to 500 ppb during manufacture, approximately 200 ppb in antiknock blending (p 16), and 0 to 80 ppb in agricultural fumigation (Ter Harr, 1980). An occupational mortality study of EDB-exposed workers inconclusive (Ott et al, 1980).

Ethylene dibromide has been reported to be a skin sensitizer (Hathaway et al, 1991).

Inhalation of an airborne concentration of 3 to 75 ppm for 13 weeks produced damage of the nasal cavity, trachea, lungs, testes, liver, and kidneys in rats and mice (Reznik, 1980).

-FIRST AID

FIRST AID AND PREHOSPITAL TREATMENT

Prevent exposure of rescuers and other individuals - refer to PREVENTION OF CONTAMINATION.

EMESIS/NOT RECOMMENDED

Ingestion of these compounds may result in burns of the oropharynx. Emesis is NOT recommended. Rinse the victim's mouth. If spontaneous vomiting is occurring, assist the victim to adopt a position that will maintain an open airway and prevent aspiration. Leaning forward or placing on the left side may be useful.

ACTIVATED CHARCOAL

PREHOSPITAL ACTIVATED CHARCOAL ADMINISTRATION

Consider prehospital administration of activated charcoal as an aqueous slurry in patients with a potentially toxic ingestion who are awake and able to protect their airway. Activated charcoal is most effective when administered within one hour of ingestion. Administration in the prehospital setting has the potential to significantly decrease the time from toxin ingestion to activated charcoal administration, although it has not been shown to affect outcome (Alaspaa et al, 2005; Thakore & Murphy, 2002; Spiller & Rogers, 2002).

In patients who are at risk for the abrupt onset of seizures or mental status depression, activated charcoal should not be administered in the prehospital setting, due to the risk of aspiration in the event of spontaneous emesis.
The addition of flavoring agents (cola drinks, chocolate milk, cherry syrup) to activated charcoal improves the palatability for children and may facilitate successful administration (Guenther Skokan et al, 2001; Dagnone et al, 2002).

CHARCOAL DOSE

Use a minimum of 240 milliliters of water per 30 grams charcoal (FDA, 1985). Optimum dose not established; usual dose is 25 to 100 grams in adults and adolescents; 25 to 50 grams in children aged 1 to 12 years (or 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram body weight) ; and 0.5 to 1 gram/kilogram in infants up to 1 year old (Chyka et al, 2005).

Routine use of a cathartic with activated charcoal is NOT recommended as there is no evidence that cathartics reduce drug absorption and cathartics are known to cause adverse effects such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, electrolyte imbalances and occasionally hypotension (None Listed, 2004).

ADVERSE EFFECTS/CONTRAINDICATIONS

Complications: emesis, aspiration (Chyka et al, 2005). Aspiration may be complicated by acute respiratory failure, ARDS, bronchiolitis obliterans or chronic lung disease (Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002; Pollack et al, 1981; Harris & Filandrinos, 1993; Elliot et al, 1989; Rau et al, 1988; Golej et al, 2001; Graff et al, 2002). Refer to the ACTIVATED CHARCOAL/TREATMENT management for further information.
Contraindications: unprotected airway (increases risk/severity of aspiration) , nonfunctioning gastrointestinal tract, uncontrolled vomiting, and ingestion of most hydrocarbons (Chyka et al, 2005).

DILUTION

DILUTION: If no respiratory compromise is present, administer milk or water as soon as possible after ingestion. Dilution may only be helpful if performed in the first seconds to minutes after ingestion. The ideal amount is unknown; no more than 8 ounces (240 mL) in adults and 4 ounces (120 mL) in children is recommended to minimize the risk of vomiting (Caravati, 2004).

Move the victim out of the contaminated area and to fresh air. If the victim is not responsive, activate the emergency response system. If the victim is not breathing but has a pulse, administer artificial respiration. If the victim is pulseless, administer CPR. If the victim has difficulty in breathing, administer humidified oxygen, if available.

DERMAL/EYE: Remove contaminated clothing, jewelry, and shoes. Immediately wash contaminated skin, hair, and under the nails with soap and copious amounts of water. Flush contaminated eyes with running water for at least 15 minutes. Prompt removal of contaminated items and dermal/eye decontamination is of extreme importance in order to prevent severe local and systemic effects. After decontamination, lightly cover skin burns with dry sterile dressings. Contaminated items should be isolated in sealed containers, away from light, heat, active metals, and liquid ammonia.

Keep the victim quiet and maintain normal body temperature. Observe for delayed effects. Central nervous system depression, respiratory distress, and cardiac disturbances may develop and necessitate resuscitation efforts or continued support to prevent aspiration.

-MEDICAL TREATMENT

LIFE SUPPORT

Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

SUMMARY

FIRST AID - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)

Move victim to fresh air.
Call 911 or emergency medical service.
Give artificial respiration if victim is not breathing.
Do not use mouth-to-mouth method if victim ingested or inhaled the substance; give artificial respiration with the aid of a pocket mask equipped with a one-way valve or other proper respiratory medical device.
Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult.
Remove and isolate contaminated clothing and shoes.
In case of contact with substance, immediately flush skin or eyes with running water for at least 20 minutes.
For minor skin contact, avoid spreading material on unaffected skin.
Keep victim warm and quiet.
Effects of exposure (inhalation, ingestion or skin contact) to substance may be delayed.
Ensure that medical personnel are aware of the material(s) involved and take precautions to protect themselves.

FIRST AID

FIRST AID

EYE EXPOSURE: Immediately wash the eyes with large amounts of water, occasionally lifting the lower and upper lids. Get medical attention immediately. Contact lenses should not be worn when working with this chemical.
DERMAL EXPOSURE: Immediately wash the contaminated skin with soap and water. If this chemical penetrates the clothing, immediately remove the clothing, wash the skin with soap and water, and get medical attention promptly.
INHALATION EXPOSURE: Move the exposed person to fresh air at once. If breathing has stopped, perform artificial respiration. Keep the affected person warm and at rest. Get medical attention as soon as possible.
ORAL EXPOSURE: If this chemical has been swallowed, get medical attention immediately.
TARGET ORGANS: Eyes, skin, respiratory system, liver, kidneys, reproductive system (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007).

GENERAL

Move victims of inhalation exposure from the toxic environment and administer 100% humidified supplemental oxygen with assisted ventilation as required. Exposed skin and eyes should be copiously flushed with water. Because of the potential for rapid onset of CNS depression or seizures with possible aspiration of gastric contents, EMESIS SHOULD NOT BE INDUCED. Cautious gastric lavage followed by administration of activated charcoal may be of benefit if the patient is seen soon after the exposure.

INHALATION EXPOSURE

INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
If bronchospasm and wheezing occur, consider treatment with inhaled sympathomimetic agents.
ACUTE LUNG INJURY: Maintain ventilation and oxygenation and evaluate with frequent arterial blood gases and/or pulse oximetry monitoring. Early use of PEEP and mechanical ventilation may be needed.
DIMERCAPROL (BAL) THERAPY should be considered in life-threatening cases as a means of limiting sulfhydryl enzyme inhibition but has not been critically tested in controlled studies.

DERMAL EXPOSURE

DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
Treat dermal irritation or burns with standard topical therapy. Patients developing dermal hypersensitivity reactions may require treatment with systemic or topical corticosteroids or antihistamines.

EYE EXPOSURE

DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.

ORAL EXPOSURE

Because of the potential for gastrointestinal tract irritation or CNS depression, DO NOT induce emesis.
DILUTION: If no respiratory compromise is present, administer milk or water as soon as possible after ingestion. Dilution may only be helpful if performed in the first seconds to minutes after ingestion. The ideal amount is unknown; no more than 8 ounces (240 mL) in adults and 4 ounces (120 mL) in children is recommended to minimize the risk of vomiting.
Significant esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation or burns may occur following ingestion. The possible benefit of early removal of some ingested material by cautious gastric lavage must be weighed against potential complications of bleeding or perforation.
GASTRIC LAVAGE: Consider after ingestion of a potentially life-threatening amount of poison if it can be performed soon after ingestion (generally within 1 hour). Protect airway by placement in the head down left lateral decubitus position or by endotracheal intubation. Control any seizures first.

CONTRAINDICATIONS: Loss of airway protective reflexes or decreased level of consciousness in unintubated patients; following ingestion of corrosives; hydrocarbons (high aspiration potential); patients at risk of hemorrhage or gastrointestinal perforation; and trivial or non-toxic ingestion.

ACTIVATED CHARCOAL: Administer charcoal as a slurry (240 mL water/30 g charcoal). Usual dose: 25 to 100 g in adults/adolescents, 25 to 50 g in children (1 to 12 years), and 1 g/kg in infants less than 1 year old.
Observe patients with ingestion carefully for the possible development of esophageal or gastrointestinal tract irritation or burns. If signs or symptoms of esophageal irritation or burns are present, consider endoscopy to determine the extent of injury.

-RANGE OF TOXICITY

MINIMUM LETHAL EXPOSURE

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE

INHALATION

GENERAL - The low vapor pressure of ethylene dibromide and increased care in its use appear to limit the number of human cases of toxic inhalational exposures in the workplace (Torkelson, 1994). Use of ethylene dibromide in confined spaces without appropriate protective equipment is potentially hazardous.
One worker exposed in a tank for 20 to 45 minutes to a 0.1% to 0.3% solution of ethylene dibromide was intermittently comatose. Death ensued 12 hours later. A co-worker attempted to rescue the first individual and was in the tank for 20 to 30 minutes. He died 64 hours later (Letz et al, 1984).

Extensive dermal exposure to the liquid in the tank also occurred. No respiratory or dermal protection was used by either individual. Key effects included coma, metabolic acidosis, acute renal and hepatic failure, and necrosis of skeletal muscle and other organs, as determined postmortem.
Evaluation of the liquid contained in the tank and air concentrations of vapors was done two hours after the accident. The tank contained approximately 7.5 centimeters of liquid, comprised of 0.1% to 0.3% of ethylene dibromide, as well as, traces of dichloropropene, dichloropropane, and high concentrations of nitrates and phosphates.
The only airborne toxicant detected by gas chromatography was ethylene dibromide, with a range of 15 to 41 ppm. The oxygen level in the tank was 21%. The air was sampled 20 hours after the accident. It is not known if there was any attempt to ventilate the tank during rescue procedures.

Another worker exposed for 30 minutes to high airborne ethylene dibromide concentrations in a confined space became comatose approximately 24 hours after exposure and died within 4 days (Nouchi, 1984). Dermal exposure to liquid ethylene dibromide may have contributed to the dose absorbed and the toxic effects.
Marmetschke (1910) and reviewed by Letz et al (1984) reported a death resulting from the accidental use of 22 grams of ethylene dibromide as an anesthetic, administered in a gauze mask. Anesthesia did not occur and the patient died from uterine hemorrhage 44 hours after exposure. Post mortem examination showed fatty degeneration of the myocardium and liver, as well as parenchymal degeneration of the kidneys (Marmetschke, 1910).

INGESTION

A woman with a history of ethanol abuse died 54 hours after ingesting two Fumisoil capsules which contained a total of 1.0 mL of ethylene dibromide (Olmstead, 1960). Death was due to profound shock, linked to excessive gastrointestinal tract fluid loss and hepatic necrosis.
Estimated ingestion of 15 mL of ethylene dibromide was fatal to a male teenager (Yodaiken & Babcock, 1973). Key effects included hypoglycemia, renal and hepatic failure, hematologic disturbances, pulmonary edema, and cardiac arrest.
In 6 cases of poisoning following ingestion of one ampule of ethylene dibromide, 2 died (Saraswat et al, 1986).
In a case series of 64 intentional ethylene dibromide ingestions, the smallest amount ingested was 1/2 ampule (1.5 mL). Ten (15.62%) of the cases ingested this amount of ethylene dibromide, and 2 (20%) of these cases expired. Overall mortality was 46.15% and 100% with ingestions of 1 ampule and greater than or equal to 1.5 ampules, respectively (Singh et al, 2007).

DERMAL

Dose-response data concerning toxic effects of dermal exposure in humans are not available. Fatalities have occurred in experimental animals exposed dermally to ethylene dibromide (Rowe et al, 1952).

MAXIMUM TOLERATED EXPOSURE

ACUTE

The maximum tolerated human exposure to this agent has not been delineated.

ROUTE OF EXPOSURE

INHALATION

REPORTED NO OBSERVED EFFECT DOSE - Six hour exposure of workers to 0.75 ppm reportedly produced no symptoms (Perry et al, 1994).
CAUTION - There is little information regarding maximum tolerated exposure. Estimates are available (McCollister et al, 1956; Sittig, 1991) Perry et al, 1994). These estimates may be based exclusively on laboratory animal data, may have been estimated prior to documented human fatalities, and may not consider the effects of long term and/or repeated exposures.

INGESTION

Acute ingestion of a solution containing 6480 mg ethylene dibromide resulted in a non-fatal case of acute renal failure with hyperkalemia and metabolic encephalopathy in a 20-year-old male (Prakash et al, 1999).
Acute ingestion of 3 mL of ethylene dibromide (estimated to be greater than 6000 mg) resulted in acute hepatic and renal failure, metabolic acidosis, and coagulopathy in a 16-year-old male (Singh et al, 2000).
In a case series of 64 intentional ethylene dibromide ingestions, the maximum amount ingested and associated with survival was 1 ampule (3 mL). Twenty-six (40.62%) of the cases ingested this amount of ethylene dibromide, and 14 (53.85%) of these cases survived (Singh et al, 2007).

Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS106-93-4 :

ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A3 ; Listed as: Ethylene dibromide

A3 :Confirmed Animal Carcinogen with Unknown Relevance to Humans: The agent is carcinogenic in experimental animals at a relatively high dose, by route(s) of administration, at site(s), of histologic type(s), or by mechanism(s) that may not be relevant to worker exposure. Available epidemiologic studies do not confirm an increased risk of cancer in exposed humans. Available evidence does not suggest that the agent is likely to cause cancer in humans except under uncommon or unlikely routes or levels of exposure.

EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): B2 ; Listed as: 1,2-Dibromoethane

B2 : Probable human carcinogen - based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in animals.

IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): 2A ; Listed as: Ethylene dibromide

2A : The agent (mixture) is probably carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are probably carcinogenic to humans. This category is used when there is limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals. In some cases, an agent (mixture) may be classified in this category when there is inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals and strong evidence that the carcinogenesis is mediated by a mechanism that also operates in humans. Exceptionally, an agent, mixture or exposure circumstance may be classified in this category solely on the basis of limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans.

NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Ca ; Listed as: Ethylene dibromide

Ca : NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards).

MAK (DFG, 2002): Category 2 ; Listed as: 1,2-Dibromoethane

Category 2 : Substances that are considered to be carcinogenic for man because sufficient data from long-term animal studies or limited evidence from animal studies substantiated by evidence from epidemiological studies indicate that they can make a significant contribution to cancer risk. Limited data from animal studies can be supported by evidence that the substance causes cancer by a mode of action that is relevant to man and by results of in vitro tests and short-term animal studies.

NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): R ; Listed as: 1,2-Dibromoethane (Ethylene dibromide)

R : RAHC = Reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen

TOXICITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT VALUES

EPA IRIS

EPA Risk Assessment Values for CAS106-93-4 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011):

Oral:

Slope Factor: 2 per mg/kg-day
RfD: 9x10(-3) mg/kg-day

Inhalation:

Unit Risk: 6x10(-1) per mg/m3 (This is one endpoint in a range of air unit risks.)
RfC: 9x10(-3) mg/m3

Drinking Water:

Unit Risk: 6x10(-2) per mg/L

TOXICITY VALUES

References: Clayton & Clayton, 1994 HSDB, 1999 ITI, 1995 Lewis, 1996 RTECS, 2002
- LC- (INHALATION)RABBIT:
- LC50- (INHALATION)GUINEA_PIG:
- LC50- (INHALATION)RAT:
- LCLo- (INHALATION)GUINEA_PIG:
- LD50- (ORAL)CHICKEN:
- LD50- (ORAL)GUINEA_PIG:
- LD50- (INTRAPERITONEAL)MOUSE:
- LD50- (ORAL)MOUSE:
- LD50- (ORAL)RABBIT:
- LD50- (SKIN)RABBIT:
- LD50- (ORAL)RAT:
- LD50- (SKIN)RAT:
- LDLo- (ORAL)HUMAN:
- LDLo- (ORAL)MOUSE:
- LDLo- (ORAL)RABBIT:
- LDLo- (RECTAL)RABBIT:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)HUMAN:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)MOUSE:
- TCLo- (INHALATION)RAT:
- TD- (ORAL)MOUSE:
- TD- (ORAL)RAT:
- TDLo- (ORAL)CATTLE:
- TDLo- (SUBCUTANEOUS)CATTLE:
- TDLo- (ORAL)HUMAN:
- TDLo- (INTRAPERITONEAL)MOUSE:
- TDLo- (ORAL)MOUSE:
- TDLo- (SKIN)MOUSE:
- TDLo- (SUBCUTANEOUS)RABBIT:
- TDLo- (ORAL)RAT:

CALCULATIONS

AMBIENT CONVERSIONS

1 ppm = 7.86 mg/m(3) (at 25 degrees C; 760 mmHg) (Clayton & Clayton, 1994)
1 ppm = 7.69 mg/m(3) (at 68 degrees F and 760 mmHg) (NIOSH , 1999)
1 mg/L = 130 ppm (Clayton & Clayton, 1994)

-STANDARDS AND LABELS

WORKPLACE STANDARDS

ACGIH TLV Values for CAS106-93-4 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):

Editor's Note: The listed values are recommendations or guidelines developed by ACGIH(R) to assist in the control of health hazards. They should only be used, interpreted and applied by individuals trained in industrial hygiene. Before applying these values, it is imperative to read the introduction to each section in the current TLVs(R) and BEI(R) Book and become familiar with the constraints and limitations to their use. Always consult the Documentation of the TLVs(R) and BEIs(R) before applying these recommendations and guidelines.

Adopted Value

Ethylene dibromide

TLV:

TLV-TWA:
TLV-STEL:
TLV-Ceiling:

Notations and Endnotes:

Carcinogenicity Category: A3
Codes: Skin
Definitions:

A3: Confirmed Animal Carcinogen with Unknown Relevance to Humans: The agent is carcinogenic in experimental animals at a relatively high dose, by route(s) of administration, at site(s), of histologic type(s), or by mechanism(s) that may not be relevant to worker exposure. Available epidemiologic studies do not confirm an increased risk of cancer in exposed humans. Available evidence does not suggest that the agent is likely to cause cancer in humans except under uncommon or unlikely routes or levels of exposure.
Skin: This refers to the potential significant contribution to the overall exposure by the cutaneous route, including mucous membranes and the eyes, either by contact with vapors or, of likely greater significance, by direct skin contact with the substance. It should be noted that although some materials are capable of causing irritation, dermatitis, and sensitization in workers, these properties are not considered relevant when assigning a skin notation. Rather, data from acute dermal studies and repeated dose dermal studies in animals or humans, along with the ability of the chemical to be absorbed, are integrated in the decision-making toward assignment of the skin designation. Use of the skin designation provides an alert that air sampling would not be sufficient by itself in quantifying exposure from the substance and that measures to prevent significant cutaneous absorption may be warranted. Please see "Definitions and Notations" (in TLV booklet) for full definition.

TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s):
Molecular Weight: 187.88

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3):

[(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45

For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm:

[(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance

AIHA WEEL Values for CAS106-93-4 (AIHA, 2006):

Not Listed

NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS106-93-4 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):

Listed as: Ethylene dibromide
REL:

TWA: 0.045 ppm
STEL:
Ceiling: 0.13 ppm [15-minute]
Carcinogen Listing: (Ca) NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards).
Skin Designation: Not Listed
Note(s): See Appendix A

IDLH:

IDLH: 100 ppm
Note(s): Ca

Ca: NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A).

OSHA PEL Values for CAS106-93-4 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):

Listed as: Ethylene dibromide
Table Z-1 for Ethylene dibromide:

8-hour TWA:

ppm:

Parts of vapor or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25 degrees C and 760 torr.

mg/m3:

Milligrams of substances per cubic meter of air. When entry is in this column only, the value is exact; when listed with a ppm entry, it is approximate.

Ceiling Value:
Skin Designation: No
Notation(s): Not Listed

Table Z-2 for Ethylene dibromide (Z37.31-1970):

8-hour TWA:20 ppm
Acceptable Ceiling Concentration: 30 ppm
Acceptable Maximum Peak above the Ceiling Concentration for an 8-hour Shift:

Concentration: 50 ppm
Maximum Duration: 5 minutes

Notation(s): Not Listed

OSHA List of Highly Hazardous Chemicals, Toxics, and Reactives for CAS106-93-4 (U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2010):

Not Listed

ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS

EPA CERCLA, Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities for CAS106-93-4 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Listed as: Dibromoethane
Final Reportable Quantity, in pounds (kilograms):

1 (0.454)

Additional Information:
Listed as: Ethane, 1,2-dibromo-
Final Reportable Quantity, in pounds (kilograms):

1 (0.454)

Additional Information:
Listed as: Ethylene dibromide
Final Reportable Quantity, in pounds (kilograms):

1 (0.454)

Additional Information:

EPA CERCLA, Hazardous Substances and Reportable Quantities, Radionuclides for CAS106-93-4 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Not Listed

EPA RCRA Hazardous Waste Number for CAS106-93-4 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010b):

Listed as: Ethane, 1,2-dibromo-
P or U series number: U067
Footnote:
Listed as: Ethylene dibromide
P or U series number: U067
Footnote:
Editor's Note: The D, F, and K series waste numbers and Appendix VIII to Part 261 -- Hazardous Constituents were not included. Please refer to 40 CFR Part 261.

EPA SARA Title III, Extremely Hazardous Substance List for CAS106-93-4 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010):

Not Listed

EPA SARA Title III, Community Right-to-Know for CAS106-93-4 (40 CFR 372.65, 2006; 40 CFR 372.28, 2006):

Listed as: 1,2-Dibromoethane (Ethylene dibromide)
Effective Date for Reporting Under 40 CFR 372.30: 1/1/87
Lower Thresholds for Chemicals of Special Concern under 40 CFR 372.28:

DOT List of Marine Pollutants for CAS106-93-4 (49 CFR 172.101 - App. B, 2005):

Listed as Methyl bromide and ethylene dibromide mixtures, liquid
Severe Marine Pollutant: No
Listed as Ethylene dibromide and methyl bromide mixtures, liquid
Severe Marine Pollutant: No

EPA TSCA Inventory for CAS106-93-4 (EPA, 2005):

Listed as: Ethane, 1,2-dibromo-

SHIPPING REGULATIONS

SURFACE

DOT -- Table of Hazardous Materials and Special Provisions for UN/NA Number 1605 (49 CFR 172.101, 2005):

Hazardous materials descriptions and proper shipping name: Ethylene dibromide

Symbol(s): Not Listed
Hazard class or Division: 6.1

6.1: Poisonous materials. See 49 CFR section 173.132 for definitions.

Identification Number: UN1605
Packing Group: I

I: Packing Group I - indicates the degree of danger presented by the material is great.

Label(s) required (if not excepted): 6.1

6.1: Poison Inhalation Hazard (inhalation hazard, Zone A or B) or Poison (other than inhalation hazard, Zone A or B; the packing group for a material is indicated in column 5 of the table.).

Special Provisions: 2, B9, B14, B32, B74, B77, T20, TP2, TP13, TP38, TP45

2: This material is poisonous by inhalation (see sxn. 171.8 of this subchapter) in Hazard Zone B (see sxn. 173.116(a) or sxn. 173.133(a) of this subchapter), and must be described as an inhalation hazard under the provisions of this subchapter.
B9: Bottom outlets are not authorized.
B14: Each bulk packaging, except a tank car or a multi-unit-tank car tank, must be insulated with an insulating material so that the overall thermal conductance at 15.5 °C (60 °F) is no more than 1.5333 kilojoules per hour per square meter per degree Celsius (0.075 Btu per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit) temperature differential. Insulating materials must not promote corrosion to steel when wet.
B32: MC 312, MC 330, MC 331, DOT 412 cargo tanks and DOT 51 portable tanks must be made of stainless steel, except that steel other than stainless steel may be used in accordance with the provisions of sxn. 173.24b(b) of this subchapter. Thickness of stainless steel for tank shell and heads for cargo tanks and portable tanks must be the greater of 6.35 mm (0.250 inch) or the thickness required for a tank with a design pressure at least equal to 1.3 times the vapor pressure of the lading at 46 °C (115 °F). In addition, MC 312 and DOT 412 cargo tank motor vehicles must: a. Be ASME Code (U) stamped for 100% radiography of all pressure-retaining welds; b. Have accident damage protection which conforms with sxn. 178.345-8 of this subchapter; c. Have a MAWP or design pressure of at least 87 psig; and d. Have a bolted manway cover.
B74: Tank cars must have a test pressure of 20.68 Bar (300 psig) or greater and conform to Class 105S, 106, 110, 112J, 114J or 120S.
B77: Other packaging are authorized when approved by the Associate Administrator.
T20: Minimum test pressure (bar): 10; Minimum shell thickness (in mm-reference steel) (See sxn.178.274(d)): 8 mm; Pressure-relief requirements (See sxn.178.275(g)): sxn. 178.275(g)(3); Bottom opening requirements (See sxn.178.275(d)): Prohibited.
TP2: a. The maximum degree of filling must not exceed the degree of filling determined by the following: [Degree of filling = 95/1+alpha(tr - tf)], where tr is the maximum mean bulk temperature during transport, tf is the temperature in degrees celsius of the liquid during filling, and alpha is the mean coefficient of cubical expansion of the liquid between the mean temperature of the liquid during filling (tf) and the maximum mean bulk temperature during transportation (tr) both in degrees celsius; and b. For liquids transported under ambient conditions a may be calculated using the formula: [alpha = (d15-d50)/(35 x d50)], where d15 and d50 are the densities (in units of mass per unit volume) of the liquid at 15 degrees C (59 degrees F) and 50 degrees C (122 degrees F), respectively.
TP13: Self-contained breathing apparatus must be provided when this hazardous material is transported by sea.
TP38: Each portable tank must be insulated with an insulating material so that the overall thermal conductance at 15.5 °C (60 °F) is no more than 1.5333 kilojoules per hour per square meter per degree Celsius (0.075 Btu per hour per square foot per degree Fahrenheit) temperature differential. Insulating materials may not promote corrosion to steel when wet.
TP45: Each portable tank must be made of stainless steel, except that steel other than stainless steel may be used in accordance with the provisions of 173.24b(b) of this subchapter. Thickness of stainless steel for portable tank shells and heads must be the greater of 6.35 mm (0.250 inch) or the thickness required for a portable tank with a design pressure at least equal to 1.3 times the vapor pressure of the hazardous material at 46 °C (115 °F).

Packaging Authorizations (refer to 49 CFR 173.***):

Exceptions: None
Non-bulk packaging: 227
Bulk packaging: 244

Quantity Limitations:

Passenger aircraft or railcar: Forbidden
Cargo aircraft only: Forbidden

Vessel Stowage Requirements:

Vessel stowage location: D

D: The material must be stowed "on deck only" on a cargo vessel and on a passenger vessel carrying a number of passengers limited to not more than the larger of 25 passengers or one passenger per each 3 m of overall vessel length, but the material is prohibited on passenger vessels in which the limiting number of passengers is exceeded.

Vessel stowage other: 40

40: Stow "clear of living quarters".

ICAO International Shipping Name for UN1605 (ICAO, 2002):

Proper Shipping Name: Ethylene dibromide
UN Number: 1605

LABELS

NFPA

NFPA Hazard Ratings for CAS106-93-4 (NFPA, 2002):

Not Listed

-HANDLING AND STORAGE

SUMMARY

INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS

Ethylene dibromide should be stored in a cool, dry, dark, well-ventilated area and away from oxidizing materials, alkali metals, and ammonia (NFPA, 1997). This compound should be protected from light (Budavari, 1996).

STORAGE

CONTAINER

Containers of ethylene dibromide should be stored in a cool, dry, dark, well-ventilated area. Containers should be kept away from oxidizing materials, alkali metals, and ammonia (NFPA, 1997). Usual shipping containers include glass bottles; metal cans, pails, drums; and tanks on trucks, rail cars, and barges (NFPA, 1997). This compound should not be shipped with foods, feed, or clothing (HSDB , 1999).

ROOM/CABINET RECOMMENDATIONS

Storage area should be cool, dry, dark, and well-ventilated (NFPA, 1997).

INCOMPATIBILITIES

Ethylene dibromide "may poison platinum catalysts" (Lewis, 1993). Ethylene dibromide may react with chemically active metals, alkali metals, liquid ammonia, sodium, potassium, calcium, powdered aluminum, hot aluminum, zinc, magnesium, liquid ammonia as well as strong oxidizers (NFPA, 1997; NIOSH , 1999; Pohanish & Greene, 1997; Sittig, 1991). Slow decomposition may occur in the presence of heat and light. Compound may attack some plastics and rubber (Pohanish & Greene, 1997).
Ethylene dibromide and powdered metals may produce a violent interaction and result in air-sensitive Grignard compounds (Urben, 1995).

-PERSONAL PROTECTION

SUMMARY

RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)

Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
Wear chemical protective clothing that is specifically recommended by the manufacturer. It may provide little or no thermal protection.
Structural firefighters' protective clothing provides limited protection in fire situations ONLY; it is not effective in spill situations where direct contact with the substance is possible.

Persons should wear appropriate protective clothing to prevent prolonged or repeated skin exposure. Appropriate eye protection should also be used. Personnel should immediately wash contaminated skin and remove contaminated clothing. Emergency showers and eyewash fountains should be provided where the potential for exposure exists (NIOSH , 1999; Sittig, 1991). Personnel should avoid breathing vapors or dusts (AAR, 1996).

Leather foot protection is easily permeated by ethylene dibromide to form dibromoethane and should be discarded if it has been contaminated (HSDB , 1999).

RESPIRATORY PROTECTION

Refer to "Recommendations for respirator selection" in the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards on TOMES Plus(R) for respirator information.

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING

CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING. Search results for CAS 106-93-4.

All data are compiled from published sources and are NOT recommended specifically by Truven Health Analytics. The appearance of specific manufacturers or products in this section does not represent an endorsement by Truven Health Analytics. No attempt has been made to verify the data presented. All product recommendations should be confirmed with the specific manufacturer for verification of product performance.
CLOTHING

Chlorinated Polyethylene

ILC Dover, Inc.

Chemturion

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 44
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Listed
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (ILC Dover, Inc., 1998)

Neoprene

River City

Neoprene splash suits

Degradation Rating: Not Recommended
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Listed
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Listed
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (River City, 1995)

Plastic Laminate

DuPont Personal Protection

Tychem 10,000

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 0.02
Notes: liquid
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem 7500

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: liquid
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem 9400

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.1
Notes: liquid
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem BR

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.1
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem F

Degradation Rating: Not Listed
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 288
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 0.52
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2003)

Tychem LV

Degradation Rating: Not Listed
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.1
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2003)

Tychem QC

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: liquid
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem SL

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Tested
Notes: liquid
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Tychem ThermoPro

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 288
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 0.52
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2003)

Tychem TK

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.1
Notes: liquid
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)
Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): <0.1
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (DuPont, 2002)

Polyvinyl Chloride

River City

PVC splash suits

Degradation Rating: Not Recommended
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Listed
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not Listed
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (River City, 1995)

FOOTWEAR

Specific recommendations and test data for this product type were not found in the available manufacturers' product literature.

GLOVES

Butyl

North Safety Products

Butyl Series

Degradation Rating: Fair
Breakthrough Time (minutes): 198
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): 6000
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (North, 2002)

Nitrile

North Safety Products

Nitrile Series

Degradation Rating: Poor
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Insufficient Data
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Insufficient Data
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (North, 2002)

Plastic Laminate

North -- Safety 4H

Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not reported
Notes: tested at 21 degrees C; 70 degrees F
Citation: (Safety 4, 2002)
Degradation Rating: No Degradation Rating provided
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Not Tested
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Not reported
Notes: tested at 35 degrees C; 95 degrees F
Citation: (Safety 4, 2002)

North Safety Products

Silver Shield

Degradation Rating: Excellent
Breakthrough Time (minutes): Insufficient Data
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): Insufficient Data
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (North, 2002)

Viton

North Safety Products

Viton Series

Degradation Rating: Excellent
Breakthrough Time (minutes): >480
Permeation Rate (mcg/cm2/min): None Detected
Notes: Not Listed
Citation: (North, 2002)

GENERAL INFORMATION

This section provides a compilation of chemical resistance information and test data for specific protective clothing products. Chemical resistance information includes both degradation resistance ratings and permeation resistance data. This information is designed to assist in the selection of appropriate protective clothing. Only data on specific products and manufacturers are included. Generic information or recommendations are not provided since significant differences can exist in the chemical resistance for apparent similar product types.
Specific product information is organized by general product type (gloves, garments, and footwear), material type, and manufacturer. The category 'garments' may include totally encapsulating suits, splash suits, as well as other items (e.g., coveralls, jackets, and aprons). Specific manufacturers should be contacted to determine the features of available styles/models.
In addition to chemical resistance information, there are many critical variables in the selection of protective clothing which cannot be represented in this summary of the literature. Some factors to be considered in choosing protective clothing include, but are not limited to: overall clothing integrity, physical hazard resistance, durability, human factors, ease of decontamination, and cost. Overall clothing integrity refers to a specific design's ability to offer consistent protection for all clothing-covered areas of the body. Physical hazards include resisting the effects of abrasion, cuts, tears, and punctures. Human factors entail effects on wearer mobility, visibility, and hearing for garments; dexterity, tactility, and grip for gloves; ankle support and weight for footwear; and, any effect of the clothing on the function of the wearer. There are several variations in the design for gloves, garments, and footwear that affect these factors. Protective clothing must properly be sized and correctly fit the wearer to ensure its proper use and function.
As required in the U.S.A., protective clothing should be selected based on a risk assessment of the workplace. This risk assessment must account for the identification of existing as well as potential hazards and involve the recommendation of protective clothing appropriate for the identified hazards. Therefore, the recommendations in this section should not be used as the sole basis for decisions on choice of protective clothing, but rather should be used as a tool by qualified occupational health and safety professionals or other technically qualified persons in conjunction with a review of all mitigating factors. Consult the OSHA PPE Standard (29 CFR 1910.132 - 1910.138) for regulations and additional guidance regarding the selection and use of protective clothing and equipment. For general information on protective clothing selection, refer to the "PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT - OSHA PUB 3077" document.
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING SELECTION

Determine the type of protective clothing item needed based on a risk assessment (e.g., gloves, garments, footwear).
For high risk situations, choose clothing that covers all parts of the body that may be exposed. In many cases, multiple clothing items will be required. Low risk situations may permit partial body protective clothing. Select protective clothing products that have reported chemical resistance data. High risk situations involving full body clothing or extended chemical contact often require permeation resistance data to determine the barrier effectiveness of materials used in the construction of clothing. Relatively low risk situations, where only splash or incidental exposure occur, may allow use of protective clothing based on degradation or penetration resistance data. Specifics on the interpretation of chemical resistance data are presented below.
Other factors must be considered in addition to chemical resistance. The selected chemical protective clothing item should offer the optimal combination of protection against identified hazards while allowing maximum function and comfort.

INTERPRETATION OF DEGRADATION RATINGS

Degradation refers to physical changes in a material as the result of chemical exposure. Degradation may become evident in visible changes, such as discoloration, swelling, delamination, deterioration, or disintegration. Degradation effects may also be measured by weight change or other changes in a material's physical properties (e.g., strength, elasticity, hardness).
Degradation resistance ratings are provided by manufacturers to rate the amount of degradation that occurs for a particular protective clothing material when contacted by a chemical. All degradation ratings are qualitative and include ratings, such as "EXCELLENT," "GOOD," "FAIR," "POOR," and "NOT RECOMMENDED." There is no standard test method for the measurement of chemical degradation resistance; therefore, manufacturer ratings may be based on different testing approaches. This makes comparison of degradation ratings between manufacturers unreliable.
The use of degradation resistance ratings alone to recommend protective clothing, particularly for high hazard situations, should be avoided. Degradation resistance testing does not directly assess the barrier quality of protective clothing, since materials can show relatively little degradation but still allow either permeation or penetration by a chemical. Degradation resistance ratings can be used to exclude protective clothing materials from consideration. Protective clothing materials with a "NOT RECOMMENDED" degradation resistance rating should never be used.
For some products, the rating "NO PENETRATION" is provided. This refers to penetration resistance test results that are based on a different procedure (American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard Test Method F 903). Penetration resistance testing involves placing a material sample in a test cell, exposing the exterior side of the material to a chemical, and then observing the interior side of the material for visible signs of liquid penetration. Part of the test is conducted at an elevated pressure. Test results are reported as pass (no penetration) or fail (penetration detected). Unlike degradation testing, penetration testing provides an assessment of protective clothing material barrier performance. Since penetration resistance testing examines only observable amounts of liquid penetration, permeation may still occur. The use of penetration resistance data must be restricted to liquid chemicals, and should be limited to scenarios where there is no reasonable vapor exposure hazard under the conditions of exposure.

INTERPRETATION OF PERMEATION DATA

Permeation is the process of chemical movement through a material on a molecular level. Permeation resistance refers to the ability of a material to retard or prevent chemical movement through it. Permeation may occur without any visible signs of degradation.
Permeation resistance is measured using a test cell which is divided into two halves by a protective clothing specimen. Chemical is placed on the challenge side, while the collection side is periodically monitored for permeating chemical. Permeation data were obtained in accordance with the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Standard Test Method F 739 (Resistance of Materials Used in Protective Clothing to Permeation by Liquids and Gases), unless stated otherwise. In the case of chemicals that are classified as warfare agents, the data were obtained in accordance with the Military Standard 282 (MIL-STD-282) (Military Standard, Filter Units, Protective Clothing, Gas-Mask Components, and Related Products: Performance Test Methods).
Permeation rate is the amount of chemical that passes through a material for a measured surface area per unit time. In this section, permeation rate is expressed in micrograms per square centimeter per minute (mcg/cm(2)/min). The reported permeation rate is either the steady-state rate or the maximum rate observed during testing. In some cases, very large permeation rates exceed measurement techniques and are reported as ">" (greater than) or "HIGH."
Breakthrough time is the elapsed time, in minutes, from the time the chemical comes in contact with the material exterior surface, to the time that chemical is detected on the interior surface. When no breakthrough is detected, the breakthrough time is report as ">" the testing period. If permeation breakthrough is rapid, results are reported as "<" (less than) the earlier sampling time or as "IMMEDIATELY" (which usually means breakthrough in less than 4 minutes).
The breakthrough time should exceed the expected use period of the selected protective clothing. Additionally, there are several other factors that must be taken into account to provide appropriate protection.
Permeation testing is usually conducted with full strength, undiluted chemical for the duration of the test period. Actual exposures may involve diluted chemical for short or intermittent exposure periods.
Permeation testing is usually conducted at room temperature. Permeation occurs faster at elevated temperatures (short breakthrough times and higher permeation rates) and slower at reduced temperatures (long breakthrough times and lower permeation rates).
Permeation resistance of mixtures cannot usually be determined on the basis of the individual chemicals making up the mixture. Synergistic effects may occur and result in more rapid permeation than accounted for by the individual mixture chemicals.
Permeation rates may be used to calculate potential wearer exposure; however, several assumptions must be made about the extent of exposure and condition of clothing wear. Furthermore, there are few chemicals with dermal exposure limits, making it difficult to determine an acceptable skin exposure level.

COMPANY INFORMATION

DuPont Personal Protection P. O. Box 80705 Wilmington, DE 19880-0705 USA Phone: (302) 774-1000 Toll-Free: (800) 931-3456 Website: http://personalprotection.dupont.com Email: personalprotection@usa.dupont.com
ILC Dover, Inc. One Moonwalker Rd. Frederica, DE 19946-2080 USA Phone: (302) 335-3911 Toll-Free: (800) 631-9567 Website: http://www.ilcdover.com Email: Customer_Service@ilcdover.com
North -- Safety 4H 2000 Plainfield Pike Cranston, RI 02921 USA Phone: (800) 430-4110 Fax: (800) 572-6346 Toll-Free: (800) 430-4110 Website: http://www.safety4.com
North Safety Products 2000 Plainfield Pike Cranston, RI 02921 USA Phone: (800) 430-4110 Fax: (800) 572-6346 Toll-Free: (800) 430-4110 Website: http://www.northsafety.com Email: marketing@northsafety.com
River City 5321 East Shelby Dr. Memphis, TN 38188 USA Phone: (800) 888-0347 Fax: (901) 795-3815 Toll-Free: (800) 888-0347 Website: http://www.protectivewear.com Email: support@protectivewear.com

REFERENCES

CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING CITATIONS

The following sources were consulted for chemical protective clothing data:

(Ansell-Edmont, 2001)
(Bata Shoe Company, 1995)
(Best Manufacturing, 2002)
(Best Manufacturing, 2004)
(Boss Manufacturing Company, 1998)
(ChemFab Corporation, 1993)
(Comasec Safety, Inc., 2003)
(Comasec Safety, Inc., 2003a)
(DuPont, 2002)
(DuPont, 2002)
(DuPont, 2003)
(Guardian Manufacturing Group, 2001)
(ILC Dover, Inc., 1998)
(Kappler Inc., 2001)
(Kimberly-Clark, 2002)
(LaCrosse-Rainfair, 1997)
(MAPA Professional, 2003)
(MAPA Professional, 2004)
(Mar-Mac Manufacturing, Inc, 1995)
(Marigold Industrial, 2003)
(Memphis Glove Company, 2001)
(Montgomery Safety Products, 1995)
(Nat-Wear, 2001)
(Neese Industries, Inc., 2003)
(North, 2002)
(North, 2002)
(Playtex, 1995)
(River City, 1995)
(Safety 4, 2002)
(Servus, 1995)
(Standard Safety Equipment, 1995)
(Tingley, 2002)
(Trelleborg-Viking, Inc., 2001)
(Trelleborg-Viking, Inc., 2002)
(Wells Lamont Industrial, 2002)
(Workrite, 1997)

-PHYSICAL HAZARDS

FIRE HAZARD

SUMMARY

POTENTIAL FIRE OR EXPLOSION HAZARDS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)
- Non-combustible, substance itself does not burn but may decompose upon heating to produce corrosive and/or toxic fumes.
- Some are oxidizers and may ignite combustibles (wood, paper, oil, clothing, etc.).
- Contact with metals may evolve flammable hydrogen gas.
- Containers may explode when heated.
Ethylene dibromide is non-flammable (Lewis, 1998). This compound does not burn, or burns with difficulty (AAR, 1996). Fires involving this compound should be extinguished using an agent suitable for the surrounding fire. Fire-exposed containers can be kept cool using water (NFPA, 1997). Decomposition gases may be toxic and irritating (CHRIS , 1999).

FLAMMABILITY CLASSIFICATION

NFPA Flammability Rating for CAS106-93-4 (NFPA, 2002):

Not Listed

INITIATING OR CONTRIBUTING PROPERTIES

Ethylene dibromide, when heated to decomposition, emits toxic fumes of hydrogen bromide (Lewis, 1996). Ethylene dibromide may react with chemically active metals, liquid ammonia, strong oxidizers. Slow decomposition may occur in the presence of heat and light. May attack some plastics and rubber (Pohanish & Greene, 1997).

FIRE CONTROL/EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

SMALL FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)

Dry chemical, CO2 or water spray.

LARGE FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)

Dry chemical, CO2, alcohol-resistant foam or water spray.
Move containers from fire area if you can do it without risk.
Dike fire control water for later disposal; do not scatter the material.

TANK OR CAR/TRAILER LOAD FIRE PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)

Fight fire from maximum distance or use unmanned hose holders or monitor nozzles.
Do not get water inside containers.
Cool containers with flooding quantities of water until well after fire is out.
Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety devices or discoloration of tank.
ALWAYS stay away from tanks engulfed in fire.

NFPA Extinguishing Methods for CAS106-93-4 (NFPA, 2002):

Not Listed

Ethylene dibromide is non-flammable. Fires involving this compound should be extinguished using an agent suitable for the surrounding fire (Sittig, 1991). Fire-exposed containers can be kept cool with water (NFPA, 1997).

COMBUSTION TOXICITY

When heated to decomposition, ethylene dibromide emits toxic fumes of hydrogen bromide (Lewis, 1996).

EXPLOSION HAZARD

Mixtures of liquid ammonia and ethylene dibromide allowed to reach room temperature may result in an explosion with formation of ethylene diamine and higher homologs (HSDB , 1999).

DUST/VAPOR HAZARD

When heated to decomposition, ethylene dibromide emits toxic fumes of hydrogen bromide (Lewis, 1996).

Vapors of ethylene dibromide are poisonous if inhaled and are irritating to eyes, nose and throat (CHRIS , 1999).

REACTIVITY HAZARD

Ethylene dibromide "may poison platinum catalysts" and may attack some plastics and rubber (Lewis, 1993; Pohanish & Greene, 1997). Slow decomposition may occur in the presence of heat and light (Pohanish & Greene, 1997).

Ethylene dibromide, when heated to decomposition, emits toxic fumes of hydrogen bromide (Lewis, 1996). Ethylene dibromide may react with chemically active metals, liquid ammonia, strong oxidizers (Pohanish & Greene, 1997).

Ethylene dibromide undergoes vigorous reaction with metals (such as aluminum, magnesium, sodium and potassium), strong alkalis and oxidizing agents (ITI, 1995).

EVACUATION PROCEDURES

SUMMARY

Initial Isolation and Protective Action Distances (ERG, 2004)

Data presented from the Emergency Response Guidebook Table of Initial Isolation and Protective Action Distances are for use when a spill has occurred and there is no fire. If there is a fire, or if a fire is involved, evacuation information presented under FIRE - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES should be used.
Generally, a small spill is one that involves a single, small package such as a drum containing up to approximately 200 liters, a small cylinder, or a small leak from a large package. A large spill is one that involves a spill from a large package, or multiple spills from many small packages.
Suggested distances to protect from vapors of toxic-by-inhalation and/or water-reactive materials during the first 30 minutes following the spill.

DOT ID No. 1605 - Ethylene dibromide

SMALL SPILLS

First isolate in all directions: 30 meters (100 feet).
Note wind direction.
Then protect persons downwind:

during the DAY for: 0.1 kilometers (0.1 miles); or
during the NIGHT for: 0.1 kilometers (0.1 miles).

LARGE SPILLS

First isolate in all directions: 30 meters (100 feet).
Note wind direction.
Then protect persons downwind:

during the DAY for: 0.3 kilometers (0.2 miles); or
during the NIGHT for: 0.6 kilometers (0.4 miles).

SPILL - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)

Increase, in the downwind direction, as necessary, the isolation distance of at least 50 meters (150 feet) for liquids and at least 25 meters (75 feet) for solids in all directions.

FIRE - PUBLIC SAFETY EVACUATION DISTANCES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)

If tank, rail car or tank truck is involved in a fire, ISOLATE for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions; also, consider initial evacuation for 800 meters (1/2 mile) in all directions.

PUBLIC SAFETY MEASURES - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)

CALL Emergency Response Telephone Number on Shipping Paper first. If Shipping Paper not available or no answer, refer to appropriate telephone number:

MEXICO:

SETIQ:

01-800-00-214-00 in the Mexican Republic;
For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5559-1588;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-559-1588.

CENACOM:

01-800-00-413-00 in the Mexican Republic;
For calls originating in Mexico City and the Metropolitan Area: 5550-1496, 5550-1552, 5550-1485, or 5550-4885;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-52-555-550-1496, or 011-52-555-550-1552; 011-52-555-550-1485, or 011-52-555-550-4885.

ARGENTINA:

CIQUIME:

0-800-222-2933 in the Republic of Argentina;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: +54-11-4613-1100.

BRAZIL:

PRÓ-QUÍMICA:

0-800-118270 (Toll-free in Brazil);
For calls originating elsewhere, call: +55-11-232-1144 (Collect calls are accepted).

COLUMBIA:

CISPROQUIM:

01-800-091-6012 in Colombia;
For calls originating in Bogotá, Colombia, call: 288-6012;
For calls originating elsewhere, call: 011-57-1-288-6012.

CANADA:

CANUTEC:

613-996-6666 (Collect calls are accepted);
*666 cellular (in Canada only).

UNITED STATES:

CHEMTREC®:

1-800-424-9300 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
703-527-3887 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

CHEM-TEL, INC.:

1-800-255-3924 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
813-248-0585 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

INFOTRAC:

1-800-535-5053 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
352-323-3500 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

3E COMPANY:

1-800-451-8346 (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
760-602-8703 for calls originating elsewhere (Collect calls are accepted).

NATIONAL RESPONSE CENTER (NRC):

1-800-424-8802 - (24 hours) (Toll-free in the U.S., Canada, and the U.S. Virgin Islands);
202-267-2675 for calls in the District of Columbia.

MILITARY SHIPMENTS:

703-697-0218 - Explosives/ammunition incidents (Collect calls are accepted);
1-800-851-8061 - All other dangerous goods incidents.

NATIONWIDE POISON CONTROL CENTER (United States only):

1-800-222-1222 (Toll-free in the U.S.).

For additional details see the section entitled "WHO TO CALL FOR ASSISTANCE" under the ERG Instructions.
As an immediate precautionary measure, isolate spill or leak area in all directions for at least 50 meters (150 feet) for liquids and at least 25 meters (75 feet) for solids.
Keep unauthorized personnel away.
Stay upwind.
Keep out of low areas.
Ventilate enclosed areas.

AIHA ERPG Values for CAS106-93-4 (AIHA, 2006):

Not Listed

DOE TEEL Values for CAS106-93-4 (U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management, 2010):

Listed as Ethylene dibromide
TEEL-0 (units = ppm): 17
TEEL-1 (units = ppm): 17
TEEL-2 (units = ppm): 24
TEEL-3 (units = ppm): 46
Definitions:

TEEL-0: The threshold concentration below which most people will experience no adverse health effects.
TEEL-1: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm [parts per million] or mg/m(3) [milligrams per cubic meter]) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience notable discomfort, irritation, or certain asymptomatic, nonsensory effects. However, these effects are not disabling and are transient and reversible upon cessation of exposure.
TEEL-2: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m(3)) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience irreversible or other serious, long-lasting, adverse health effects or an impaired ability to escape.
TEEL-3: The airborne concentration (expressed as ppm or mg/m(3)) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience life-threatening adverse health effects or death.

AEGL Values for CAS106-93-4 (National Research Council, 2010; National Research Council, 2009; National Research Council, 2008; National Research Council, 2007; NRC, 2001; NRC, 2002; NRC, 2003; NRC, 2004; NRC, 2004; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2009; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2008; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2007; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2005; National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances, 2006; 62 FR 58840, 1997; 65 FR 14186, 2000; 65 FR 39264, 2000; 65 FR 77866, 2000; 66 FR 21940, 2001; 67 FR 7164, 2002; 68 FR 42710, 2003; 69 FR 54144, 2004):

Listed as: 1,2-Dibromoethane
Proposed Value:

AEGL-1

10 min exposure:

ppm: 52 ppm
mg/m3: 400 mg/m(3)

30 min exposure:

ppm: 26 ppm
mg/m3: 200 mg/m(3)

1 hr exposure:

ppm: 17 ppm
mg/m3: 131 mg/m(3)

4 hr exposure:

ppm: 7.1 ppm
mg/m3: 55 mg/m(3)

8 hr exposure:

ppm: 4.6 ppm
mg/m3: 35 mg/m(3)

Definitions:

AEGL-1 is the airborne concentration of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience notable discomfort, irritation, or certain asymptomatic non-sensory effects. However, the effects are not disabling, are transient, and are reversible upon cessation of exposure.

Listed as: 1,2-Dibromoethane
Proposed Value:

AEGL-2

10 min exposure:

ppm: 73 ppm
mg/m3: 562 mg/m(3)

30 min exposure:

ppm: 37 ppm
mg/m3: 285 mg/m(3)

1 hr exposure:

ppm: 24 ppm
mg/m3: 185 mg/m(3)

4 hr exposure:

ppm: 10 ppm
mg/m3: 77 mg/m(3)

8 hr exposure:

ppm: 6.5 ppm
mg/m3: 50 mg/m(3)

Definitions:

AEGL-2 is the airborne concentration of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience irreversible or other serious, long-lasting adverse health effects or an impaired ability to escape.

Listed as: 1,2-Dibromoethane
Proposed Value:

AEGL-3

10 min exposure:

ppm: 170 ppm
mg/m3: 1308 mg/m(3)

30 min exposure:

ppm: 76 ppm
mg/m3: 585 mg/m(3)

1 hr exposure:

ppm: 46 ppm
mg/m3: 354 mg/m(3)

4 hr exposure:

ppm: 17 ppm
mg/m3: 131 mg/m(3)

8 hr exposure:

ppm: 10 ppm
mg/m3: 77 mg/m(3)

Definitions:

AEGL-3 is the airborne concentration of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience life-threatening health effects or death.

NIOSH IDLH Values for CAS106-93-4 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):

IDLH: 100 ppm
Note(s): Ca

(Ca) NIOSH considers this substance to be a potential occupational carcinogen (See Appendix A).

CONTAINMENT/WASTE TREATMENT OPTIONS

SUMMARY

SPILL OR LEAK PRECAUTIONS - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)
- ELIMINATE all ignition sources (no smoking, flares, sparks or flames in immediate area).
- Do not touch damaged containers or spilled material unless wearing appropriate protective clothing.
- Stop leak if you can do it without risk.
- Prevent entry into waterways, sewers, basements or confined areas.
- Absorb or cover with dry earth, sand or other non-combustible material and transfer to containers.
- DO NOT GET WATER INSIDE CONTAINERS.
RECOMMENDED PROTECTIVE CLOTHING - EMERGENCY RESPONSE GUIDEBOOK, GUIDE 154 (ERG, 2004)
- Wear positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).
- Wear chemical protective clothing that is specifically recommended by the manufacturer. It may provide little or no thermal protection.
- Structural firefighters' protective clothing provides limited protection in fire situations ONLY; it is not effective in spill situations where direct contact with the substance is possible.
Spill area should be evacuated (Sittig, 1991). Leaks should be stopped or controlled, only if possible without undue risk (NFPA, 1997). Protective clothing and equipment should be used when handling spilled ethylene dibromide. Area should be ventilated (Sittig, 1991). Foam may be used to blanket the released material and suppress the vapors (NFPA, 1997). Spills may be absorbed using a non-reactive material and shoveled into a safe container for proper disposal (Sittig, 1991).
Ethylene dibromide should be kept out of water sources and sewers. Dikes may be used to control flow (AAR, 1996).
If ethylene dibromide is spilled on land, pits, ponds, lagoons, or other holding areas may be used to contain the spilled material. Surface flow may be diked using soil, sand bags, foamed polyurethane, or foamed concrete. Bulk liquid may be absorbed with fly ash or cement powder. A universal gelling agent may also be used to immobilize the spill (AAR, 1996).
If ethylene dibromide is spilled in a water source, natural deep water pockets, excavated lagoons, or sand bag barriers may be used to trap the spilled material at the bottom of the water source. If ethylene dibromide is dissolved, in a region of 10ppm or greater concentration, activated carbon, at ten times the spilled amount, may be applied. Trapped material may be removed using suction hoses. Mechanical dredges or lifts may be used to remove the immobilized masses of pollutants and precipitates (AAR, 1996). This compound is very harmful to aquatic live in very low concentrations (CHRIS , 1999).
ITI (1995) indicates that spilled material may be absorbed with paper towels or similar material and placed in a hood to evaporate. Paper towel may then be burned. Also, waste may be dissolved in a combustible solvent and the solution scattered into a furnace equipped with an afterburner and an alkali scrubber.

WASTE TREATMENT OPTIONS

PHYSICAL TREATMENT

Ethylene dibromide may be incinerated using an incinerator equipped with a scrubber and ash disposal (Sittig, 1991).
Waste management activities associated with material disposition are unique to individual situations. Proper waste characterization and decisions regarding waste management should be coordinated with the appropriate local, state, or federal authorities to ensure compliance with all applicable rules and regulations.

-ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD MANAGEMENT

POLLUTION HAZARD

Ethylene dibromide can enter the environment through its use as a lead scavenger in leaded gasolines and through its use as a fumigant for soil, citrus, grain, fruits, vegetables, tobacco, and seeds. It may also enter the environment through wastewater and emissions from its use as a solvent for resins, gums, and waxes, and through its use as a chemical intermediate in dye and pharmaceutical synthesis (Howard, 1997). HSDB (1999) reports that ethylene dibromide may occur naturally in the ocean waters and air as a result of macro algae growth.

ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND KINETICS

Ethylene dibromide released into the atmosphere is expected to degrade through its reaction with photochemically produced hydroxyl radicals (half-life of 67 days). This compound may also undergo physical removal through precipitation and dissolution in clouds (Howard, 1997).
Half-lives ranging from 10.7 to 107 days have been reported (Howard, 1991).

WATER

SURFACE WATER
- In water, the primary removal process for this compound is evaporation. In a typical river it is expected to have a half-life of just over a day and 5 days in a lake. Sediment adsorption is not expected to be significant. Under anaerobic conditions, ethylene dibromide will not degrade. This compound is persistent in aquifers (Howard, 1997).
- Surface water half-lives ranging from 4 weeks to 6 months have been reported (Howard, 1991).
- Groundwater half-lives ranging from 19.6 days to 120 days have been reported (Howard, 1991).

SOIL

TERRESTRIAL
- In soil, ethylene dibromide is expected to partially evaporate. Entrapment of this compound in soil micropores is likely; it has been detected in agricultural top soils up to 19 years after the last known application. Freshly administered ethylene dibromide will degrade with half-lives of 4-8 days, while the original compound will not degrade. Ethylene dibromide also has a low sorption to soil and data indicate that it will leach into the soil and penetrate groundwater. In aquifer samples, half-lives of 75 and 50 days under aerobic and anaerobic conditions have been reported. This compound will also not be taken-up by plants (Howard, 1997).
- Half-lives ranging from 4 weeks to 6 months have been reported (Howard, 1991).
- Low to moderate soil adsorption was measured for ethylene dibromide. Koc values ranged from 14 to 160 (Howard, 1997).

ABIOTIC DEGRADATION

Ethylene dibromide is stable toward hydrolysis with reported half-lives ranging from 13.2 years (at pH 7 and 20 degrees C), 8 years (at pH 7 and 20 degrees C), and 2.5 years (at pH 7.5 and 25 degrees C) (Howard, 1997).

BIODEGRADATION

Aerobic half lives ranging from 4 weeks to 6 months have been reported (Howard, 1991). Anaerobic half-lives ranging from 2 days to 15 days have been reported (Howard, 1991).

BIOACCUMULATION

BIOCONCENTRATION FACTOR

The BCF in fish is <1. Reported BCFs of 1.6-3.2 and less than 3.5-14.9 have been reported for this compound at concentrations of 150 mcg/L and 15 mcg/L, respectively (Howard, 1997).

ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICITY

FRESHWATER TOXICITY (CHRIS , 1999; HSDB , 1999)

LC50 - Lepomis macrochirus: 18 mg/L for 48H

-PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

MOLECULAR WEIGHT

187.86

DESCRIPTION/PHYSICAL STATE

Ethylene dibromide exists as a colorless, heavy liquid with a sweet, pleasant, chloroform-like odor (Ashford, 1994; (Lewis, 1996).

Below 50 degrees F, ethylene dibromide exists as a solid (HSDB , 2002).

Ethylene dibromide is heavier than water (AAR, 1996).

This extremely toxic compound slowly decomposes in light (ITI, 1995; Lewis, 1998).

This compound has low flammability in air (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).

VAPOR PRESSURE

17.4 mmHg (at 30 degrees C) (Lewis, 1996)

12 mmHg (at 25 degrees C) (Clayton & Clayton, 1994)

11.2 mmHg (at 25 degrees C) (Howard, 1997)

11.0 mmHg (at 25 degrees C) (Budavari, 1996)

1.13 kPa (8.5 mmHg) (at 20 degrees C) (HSDB , 2002)

15.98 kPa (119.8 mmHg) (at 75 degrees C) (HSDB , 2002)

285.2 mmHg (at 100 degrees C) (HSDB , 2002)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY

NORMAL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

(25 degrees C; 77 degrees F and 760 mmHg)
2.172 (at 25/25 degrees C) (Budavari, 1996)
2.1701 (at 25/4 degrees C) (Clayton & Clayton, 1994)
2.17 (at 25/4 degrees C) (NIOSH , 1999)

TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE NOT LISTED

2.18 (NFPA, 1997)

DENSITY

OTHER TEMPERATURE AND/OR PRESSURE

2.17 kg/L (at 20 degrees C) (Ashford, 1994)
2.178 kg/L (at 20/4 degrees C ) (Lewis, 1996)
2.17-2.18 kg/L (at 20 degrees C) (Lewis, 1993)

FREEZING/MELTING POINT

FREEZING POINT

10 degrees C (Ashford, 1994)
9.3 degrees C (Lewis, 1996)
9 degrees C (Budavari, 1996)
50 degrees F (CHRIS , 1999)
9.8 degrees C; 49.6 degrees F; 283.0 degrees K (CHRIS , 1999)

MELTING POINT

10 degrees C; 50 degrees F (Lewis, 1996; NFPA, 1997)
9.97 degrees C (ACGIH, 1991; Clayton & Clayton, 1994)
9.8 degrees C (Howard, 1997)
9.1 degrees C (ITI, 1995)

BOILING POINT

131 degrees C; 268 degrees F; 404 degrees K (Ashford, 1994; (CHRIS , 1999; Lewis, 1993; Sittig, 1991)

131.4 degrees C (Lewis, 1996)

131.6 degrees C (Clayton & Clayton, 1994)

131-132 degrees C; 268-270 degrees F (Budavari, 1996; NFPA, 1997)

132 degrees C (ACGIH, 1991)

FLASH POINT

None (Lewis, 1996)

EXPLOSIVE LIMITS

LOWER

Not Applicable (NIOSH , 1999)

UPPER

Not Applicable (NIOSH , 1999)

SOLUBILITY

IN WATER

Ethylene dibromide is insoluble in water (Ashford, 1994; (NFPA, 1997)
Soluble in about 250 parts water (Budavari, 1996)
Emulsifiable (Lewis, 1993)
Slightly soluble in water (0.43 g/100 mL) (at 30 degrees C) (AAR, 1996; (ACGIH, 1991; Clayton & Clayton, 1994)
4150 mg/L (at 25 degrees C) (Howard, 1997)
0.34 g/100 mL (at 20 degrees C) (HSDB , 2002)
0.404 g/100 mL (at 20 degrees C) (HSDB , 2002)

IN ORGANIC SOLVENTS

Ethylene dibromide is soluble in oxygenated solvents (Ashford, 1994).
Miscible with alcohol and ether (Budavari, 1996).
Miscible with most solvents and thinners (Lewis, 1998).
Soluble in ethanol, ether, and most organic solvents (ACGIH, 1991)

OCTANOL/WATER PARTITION COEFFICIENT

Log Kow=1.96 (Howard, 1997)

HENRY'S CONSTANT

6.67x10(-4) atm-m(3) (at 25 degrees C) (calculated) (Howard, 1997)

SPECTRAL CONSTANTS

15294 (Sadtler Research Laboratories IR Grating Collection) (HSDB , 2002)

MASS

1276 (Atlas of Mass Spectral Data, John Wiley & Sons) (HSDB , 2002)

OTHER/PHYSICAL

ODOR THRESHOLD

10 ppm (Sittig, 1991)
Low: 76.80 mg/m(3) (HSDB , 2002)
High: 62.5 mg/m(3) (HSDB , 2002)

ORGANIC CARBON PARTITION COEFFICIENT

Koc=14 to 160 (Howard, 1997)

SURFACE TENSION

38.75 dynes/cm; 0.03875 N/m (at 20 degrees C) (CHRIS , 1999)

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

4.77 (at 20.5 degrees C) (0.1 MHz) (HSDB , 2002)

HEAT OF COMBUSTION

6647 J/g; 1289 cal/g (in an oxygen bomb) (HSDB , 2002)

HEAT OF FUSION

13.79 cal/g (CHRIS , 1999)

INDEX OF REFRACTION

1.5379 (at 20 degrees C) (Budavari, 1996)
1.53789 (at 20 degrees C) (Clayton & Clayton, 1994)
1.5337 (at 25 degrees C) (Lewis, 1993)

IONIZATION POTENTIAL

9.45 eV (HSDB , 2002)

LIQUID WATER INTERFACIAL TENSION

36.54 dynes/cm; 0.03654 N/m (at 20 degrees C) (CHRIS , 1999)

NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE

7554 (Sadtler Research Laboratories Spectral Collection) (HSDB , 2002)

VISCOSITY

1.727 cP (at 20 degrees C) (HSDB , 2002)

-REFERENCES

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

40 CFR 372.28: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Lower thresholds for chemicals of special concern. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO). Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.

40 CFR 372.65: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Chemicals and Chemical Categories to which this part applies. National Archives and Records Association (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.

49 CFR 172.101 - App. B: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials, Appendix B: List of Marine Pollutants. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 29, 2005.

49 CFR 172.101: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 11, 2005.

62 FR 58840: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 1997.

65 FR 14186: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

65 FR 39264: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

65 FR 77866: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.

66 FR 21940: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2001.

67 FR 7164: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2002.

68 FR 42710: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2003.

69 FR 54144: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2004.

ACGIH: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 6th ed, Am Conference of Govt Ind Hyg, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, 1991.

AIHA: 2006 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines and Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook, American Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006.

AMA Department of DrugsAMA Department of Drugs: AMA Evaluations Subscription, American Medical Association, Chicago, IL, 1992.

AMA: Effects of Toxic Chemicals on the Reproductive System, AMA Council on Scientific Affairs, American Medical Association, Chicago, IL, 1985.

Alaspaa AO, Kuisma MJ, Hoppu K, et al: Out-of-hospital administration of activated charcoal by emergency medical services. Ann Emerg Med 2005; 45:207-12.

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists : ACGIH 2010 Threshold Limit Values (TLVs(R)) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs(R)), American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH, 2010.

Amir D & Ben-David E: Ann Biol Anim Biochim Biophys 1973; 13:165-170.

Amir D & Volcani R: Effect of dietary ethylene dibromide on bull semen. Nature 1965; 206:99-100.

Aneja GK, Mitra A, & Mital HS: Ethylene dibromide (EDB) poisoning. J Assoc Phy India 1988; 36:672-673.

Anon: Report: DHEW/PUB/NIH-78-1336, NCI-CG-TR-86, Order No PB-288428. Department of Health Education and Welfare, 1978.

Ansell-Edmont: SpecWare Chemical Application and Recommendation Guide. Ansell-Edmont. Coshocton, OH. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.ansellpro.com/specware. As accessed 10/31/2001.

Artigas A, Bernard GR, Carlet J, et al: The American-European consensus conference on ARDS, part 2: ventilatory, pharmacologic, supportive therapy, study design strategies, and issues related to recovery and remodeling.. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157:1332-1347.

Ballering LAP, Nivard MJM, & Vogel EW: Mutation spectra of 1,2-dibromoethane, 1,2-dichloroethane and 1-bromo-2-chloroethane in excision repair proficient and repair deficient strains of Drosophila melanogaster. Carcinogenesis 1994; 15:869-875.

Barlow SM & Sullivan FM: Reproductive Hazards of Industrial Chemicals: An Evaluation of Animal and Human Data, Academic Press, San Francisco, CA, 1982.

Bata Shoe Company: Industrial Footwear Catalog, Bata Shoe Company, Belcamp, MD, 1995.

Best Manufacturing: ChemRest Chemical Resistance Guide. Best Manufacturing. Menlo, GA. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.chemrest.com. As accessed 10/8/2002.

Best Manufacturing: Degradation and Permeation Data. Best Manufacturing. Menlo, GA. 2004. Available from URL: http://www.chemrest.com/DomesticPrep2/. As accessed 04/09/2004.

Boss Manufacturing Company: Work Gloves, Boss Manufacturing Company, Kewanee, IL, 1998.

Brimer PA: Environ Mutagen 1981; 3:317-318.

Bronstein AC & Currance PL: Emergency Care for Hazardous Exposures, 2nd ed, Mosby Lifeline, St Louis, MO, 1994.

Brophy GM, Bell R, Claassen J, et al: Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2012; 17(1):3-23.

Brower RG, Matthay AM, & Morris A: Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Eng J Med 2000; 342:1301-1308.

Budavari S: The Merck Index, 12th ed, Merck & Co, Inc, Whitehouse Station, NJ, 1996, pp 646.

Burgess JL, Kirk M, Borron SW, et al: Emergency department hazardous materials protocol for contaminated patients. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 34(2):205-212.

CHRIS : CHRIS Hazardous Chemical Data. US Department of Transportation, US Coast Guard. Washington, DC (Internet Version). Edition expires 1999; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Caravati EM: Alkali. In: Dart RC, ed. Medical Toxicology, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 2004.

Carvajal HF & Stewart CE: Emergency management of burn patients: the first few hours. Emerg Med Reports 1987; 8:129-136.

Cataletto M: Respiratory Distress Syndrome, Acute(ARDS). In: Domino FJ, ed. The 5-Minute Clinical Consult 2012, 20th ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA, 2012.

Chamberlain JM, Altieri MA, & Futterman C: A prospective, randomized study comparing intramuscular midazolam with intravenous diazepam for the treatment of seizures in children. Ped Emerg Care 1997; 13:92-94.

ChemFab Corporation: Chemical Permeation Guide Challenge Protective Clothing Fabrics, ChemFab Corporation, Merrimack, NH, 1993.

Chin RF , Neville BG , Peckham C , et al: Treatment of community-onset, childhood convulsive status epilepticus: a prospective, population-based study. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7(8):696-703.

Choonara IA & Rane A: Therapeutic drug monitoring of anticonvulsants state of the art. Clin Pharmacokinet 1990; 18:318-328.

Chyka PA, Seger D, Krenzelok EP, et al: Position paper: Single-dose activated charcoal. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2005; 43(2):61-87.

Clayton GD & Clayton FE: Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Toxicology, 4th ed, 2F, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1994.

Comasec Safety, Inc.: Chemical Resistance to Permeation Chart. Comasec Safety, Inc.. Enfield, CT. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.comasec.com/webcomasec/english/catalogue/mtabgb.html. As accessed 4/28/2003.

Comasec Safety, Inc.: Product Literature, Comasec Safety, Inc., Enfield, CT, 2003a.

Couretens J-L: J Ultrastruct Res 1980; 71:103-115.

Crespi CL: Mutat Res 1985; 142:133-140.

DFG: List of MAK and BAT Values 2002, Report No. 38, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazards of Chemical Compounds in the Work Area, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany, 2002.

Dagnone D, Matsui D, & Rieder MJ: Assessment of the palatability of vehicles for activated charcoal in pediatric volunteers. Pediatr Emerg Care 2002; 18:19-21.

DuPont: DuPont Suit Smart: Interactive Tool for the Selection of Protective Apparel. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2002. Available from URL: http://personalprotection.dupont.com/protectiveapparel/suitsmart/smartsuit2/na_english.asp. As accessed 10/31/2002.

DuPont: Permeation Guide for DuPont Tychem Protective Fabrics. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2003. Available from URL: http://personalprotection.dupont.com/en/pdf/tyvektychem/pgcomplete20030128.pdf. As accessed 4/26/2004.

DuPont: Permeation Test Results. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2002a. Available from URL: http://www.tyvekprotectiveapprl.com/databases/default.htm. As accessed 7/31/2002.

EPA: Search results for Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Inventory Chemicals. US Environmental Protection Agency, Substance Registry System, U.S. EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.epa.gov/srs/.

ERG: Emergency Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial Phase of a Dangerous Goods/Hazardous Materials Incident, U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Washington, DC, 2004.

Edwards K & Jackson H: Studies with alkylating esters -- II. A chemical interpretation through metabolic studies of the antifertility effects of ethylene dimethanesulphonate and ethylene dibromide. Biochem Pharmacol 1970; 19:1783-1789.

Elliot CG, Colby TV, & Kelly TM: Charcoal lung. Bronchiolitis obliterans after aspiration of activated charcoal. Chest 1989; 96:672-674.

FDA: Poison treatment drug product for over-the-counter human use; tentative final monograph. FDA: Fed Register 1985; 50:2244-2262.

Fanini D: Mutat Res 1984; 139:133-138.

Finkel AJ: Hamilton and Hardy's Industrial Toxicology, 4th ed, John Wright, PSG, Inc, Boston, MA, 1983.

Fossett NG, Byrne BJ, & Tucker AB: Mutation spectrum of 2-chloroethyl methanesulfonate in Drosophila melanogaster premeiotic germ cells. Mutat Res 1995; 331:213-224.

Golej J, Boigner H, Burda G, et al: Severe respiratory failure following charcoal application in a toddler. Resuscitation 2001; 49:315-318.

Graff GR, Stark J, & Berkenbosch JW: Chronic lung disease after activated charcoal aspiration. Pediatrics 2002; 109:959-961.

Grant WM & Schuman JS: Toxicology of the Eye, 4th ed, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1993.

Graves RJ & Green T: Mouse liver glutathione S-transferase mediated metabolism of methylene chloride to a mutagen in the CHO/HPRT assay. Mutat Res 1996; 367:143-150.

Guardian Manufacturing Group: Guardian Gloves Test Results. Guardian Manufacturing Group. Willard, OH. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.guardian-mfg.com/guardianmfg.html. As accessed 12/11/2001.

Guenther Skokan E, Junkins EP, & Corneli HM: Taste test: children rate flavoring agents used with activated charcoal. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2001; 155:683-686.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 1999; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2002; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2004; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Haas CF: Mechanical ventilation with lung protective strategies: what works?. Crit Care Clin 2011; 27(3):469-486.

Harris CR & Filandrinos D: Accidental administration of activated charcoal into the lung: aspiration by proxy. Ann Emerg Med 1993; 22:1470-1473.

Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 3rd ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1991, pp 286-288.

Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1996, pp 288-290.

Hayes WJ Jr & Laws ER Jr: Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, Academic Press, Inc, San Diego, CA, 1991a.

Hayes WJ Jr & Laws ER Jr: Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, Volume 2, Academic Press, Inc, San Diego, CA, 1991, pp 681-684.

Hayes WJ Jr: Pesticides Studied in Man, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, MD, 1982.

Haynes BW Jr: Emergency department management of minor burns. Top Emerg Med 1981; 3:35-40.

Hegenbarth MA & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs: Preparing for pediatric emergencies: drugs to consider. Pediatrics 2008; 121(2):433-443.

Howard PH: Handbook of Environmental Fate and Exposure Data for Organic Chemicals. Volume V: Solvents 3, CRC Press, Inc, Boca Raton, FL, 1997.

Hsu LL: Mutat Res 1985; 147:197-203.

Hvidberg EF & Dam M: Clinical pharmacokinetics of anticonvulsants. Clin Pharmacokinet 1976; 1:161.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: 1,3-Butadiene, Ethylene Oxide and Vinyl Halides (Vinyl Fluoride, Vinyl Chloride and Vinyl Bromide), 97, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2008.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol and 1-tert-Butoxypropan-2-ol, 88, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2006.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Household Use of Solid Fuels and High-temperature Frying, 95, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010a.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Smokeless Tobacco and Some Tobacco-specific N-Nitrosamines, 89, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2007.

IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some Non-heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Some Related Exposures, 92, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010.

IARC: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, an updating of Volumes 1-42 (Suppl 7), International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1987.

IARC: List of all agents, mixtures and exposures evaluated to date - IARC Monographs: Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity to Humans, Volumes 1-88, 1972-PRESENT. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon, FranceAvailable from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/monoeval/crthall.html. As accessed Oct 07, 2004.

ICAO: Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air, 2003-2004. International Civil Aviation Organization, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2002.

ILC Dover, Inc.: Chemical Compatibility Chart. ILC Dover, Inc.. Frederica, DE. 1998a. Available from URL: http://www.ilcdover.com/WebDocs/chart.pdf; http://www.ilcdover.com/Products/ProtSuits/Ready1/chart.htm. As accessed 12/15/2001.

ILC Dover, Inc.: Ready 1 The Chemturion Limited Use Chemical Protective Suit, ILC Dover, Inc., Frederica, DE, 1998.

ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 3rd ed, Vols 1 & 2, International Labour Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1983.

ITI: Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual, The International Technical Information Institute, Tokyo, Japan, 1995.

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: list of classifications, volumes 1-116. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Lyon, France. 2016. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/latest_classif.php. As accessed 2016-08-24.

International Agency for Research on Cancer: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. 2015. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/. As accessed 2015-08-06.

Jacobs RS: Ethylene dibromide poisoning (letter). J Amer Med Assoc 1985; 253:2961.

Kale P & Baum JW: Environ Mutagen 1979; 1:15-18.

Kale P & Kale R: Induction of delayed mutations by benzene and ethylene dibromide in drosophila. Environ Mol Mutagen 1995; 25:211-5.

Kappler, Inc.: Suit Smart. Kappler, Inc.. Guntersville, AL. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.kappler.com/suitsmart/smartsuit2/na_english.asp?select=1. As accessed 7/10/2001.

Kim MS & Guengerich FP: Synthesis of oligonucleotides containing the ethylene dibromide-derived DNA adducts S-[2-(N-7-guanyl)ethyl]glutathione, S-[-2-(N-2-guanyl)ethyl]glutathione, and S-[2-(O-6-guanyl)ethyl]glutathione at a single site. Chemical Research in Toxicology 1997; 10:1133-1143.

Kimberly-Clark, Inc.: Chemical Test Results. Kimberly-Clark, Inc.. Atlanta, GA. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.kc-safety.com/tech_cres.html. As accessed 10/4/2002.

Kleinman ME, Chameides L, Schexnayder SM, et al: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care. Part 14: pediatric advanced life support. Circulation 2010; 122(18 Suppl.3):S876-S908.

Kollef MH & Schuster DP: The acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 1995; 332:27-37.

LaCrosse-Rainfair: Safety Products, LaCrosse-Rainfair, Racine, WI, 1997.

Letz GA, Pond SM, & Osterloh JD: Two fatalities after acute occupational exposure to ethylene dibromide. JAMA 1984; 252:2428-2431.

Lewis RA: Lewis' Dictionary of Toxicology, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1998.

Lewis RJ: Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 12th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1993, pp 487.

Lewis RJ: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 9th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1996.

Lipsett MJ et al: Govt Reports Announcements & Index (GRA&I), Issue 15. National Technical Information Service (NTIS), 1983.

Loddenkemper T & Goodkin HP: Treatment of Pediatric Status Epilepticus. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2011; Epub:Epub.

MAPA Professional: Chemical Resistance Guide. MAPA North America. Columbia, TN. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.mapaglove.com/pro/ChemicalSearch.asp. As accessed 4/21/2003.

MAPA Professional: Chemical Resistance Guide. MAPA North America. Columbia, TN. 2004. Available from URL: http://www.mapaglove.com/ProductSearch.cfm?id=1. As accessed 6/10/2004.

Manno EM: New management strategies in the treatment of status epilepticus. Mayo Clin Proc 2003; 78(4):508-518.

Mar-Mac Manufacturing, Inc: Product Literature, Protective Apparel, Mar-Mac Manufacturing, Inc., McBee, SC, 1995.

Marigold Industrial: US Chemical Resistance Chart, on-line version. Marigold Industrial. Norcross, GA. 2003. Available from URL: www.marigoldindustrial.com/charts/uschart/uschart.html. As accessed 4/14/2003.

Marmetschke G: On lethal ethyl bromide and ethylene bromide intoxication. Vierteljahresschrift Gerichtliche Medizin Oeffentliche Sanitaetswensens 1910; 40:61-76.

McCollister DD, Hollingworth RL, & Oyen F: Comparative inhalation toxicity of fumigant mixtures. Arch Ind Health 1956; 13:1-7.

Mehrotra P, Naik SR, & Choudhuri G: Two cases of ethylene dibromide poisoning. Vet Human Toxicol 2001; 43:91-92.

Memphis Glove Company: Permeation Guide. Memphis Glove Company. Memphis, TN. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.memphisglove.com/permeation.html. As accessed 7/2/2001.

Minor JL: Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1978; 45:347.

Montgomery Safety Products: Montgomery Safety Products Chemical Resistant Glove Guide, Montgomery Safety Products, Canton, OH, 1995.

Morgan DP: Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisonings, 4th ed. EPA-540/9-88-001, US Environmental Protection Agency, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1993.

Moylan JA: Burn care after thermal injury. Top Emerg Med 1980; 2:39-52.

NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 12th ed, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1997.

NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 13th ed., National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.

NHLBI ARDS Network: Mechanical ventilation protocol summary. Massachusetts General Hospital. Boston, MA. 2008. Available from URL: http://www.ardsnet.org/system/files/6mlcardsmall_2008update_final_JULY2008.pdf. As accessed 2013-08-07.

NIOSH : Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 1999; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

NIOSH: Health Hazard Evaluation Report. HETA 83-408-1389, US Forest Service, Dillon District, Frisco, CO, 1983.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 1, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 2, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2002.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 3, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2003.

NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 4, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2004.

Naradzay J & Barish RA: Approach to ophthalmologic emergencies. Med Clin North Am 2006; 90(2):305-328.

Nat-Wear: Protective Clothing, Hazards Chart. Nat-Wear. Miora, NY. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.natwear.com/hazchart1.htm. As accessed 7/12/2001.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Butylene Oxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648083cdbb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Dibromoethane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802796db&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 2-Ethylhexyl Chloroformate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037904e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Acrylonitrile (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648028e6a3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Adamsite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Agent BZ (3-quinuclidinyl benzilate) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ad507&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Allyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039d9ee&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Arsenic Trioxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480220305&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Automotive Gasoline Unleaded (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cc17&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Biphenyl (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1b7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bis-Chloromethyl Ether (BCME) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648022db11&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Boron Tribromide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae1d3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromine Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039732a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromoacetone (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187bf&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Calcium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae328&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Sulfide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037ff26&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Chlorobenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803a52bb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Cyanogen (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187fe&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Dimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbf3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Diphenylchloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091884e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Phosphorodichloridate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480920347&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809203e7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Germane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963906&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Hexafluoropropylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1f5&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ketene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ee7c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Malathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809639df&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Mercury Vapor (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a087&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Isothiocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a03&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a57&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802a4985&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methylchlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5f4&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c646&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN1 CAS Reg. No. 538-07-8) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN2 CAS Reg. No. 51-75-2) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN3 CAS Reg. No. 555-77-1) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Tetroxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091855b&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Trifluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008o. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e32&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perchloryl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e268&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perfluoroisobutylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008p. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dd58&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020cc0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phorate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008q. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dcc8&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene (Draft-Revised). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a08a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene Oxime (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26d&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Propargyl Alcohol (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec91&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Selenium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec55&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Silane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d523&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Strontium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sulfuryl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec7a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tear Gas (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008s. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e551&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tellurium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e2a1&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tert-Octyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008r. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5c7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tetramethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-17.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7d608&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethylacetyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008t. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5cc&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Zinc Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for n-Butyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064808f9591&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.

National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute: Expert panel report 3: guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute. Bethesda, MD. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.pdf.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, 2007.

National Research Council : Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 5, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2007.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 6, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2008.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 7, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2009.

National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 8, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2010.

Neese Industries, Inc.: Fabric Properties Rating Chart. Neese Industries, Inc.. Gonzales, LA. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.neeseind.com/new/TechGroup.asp?Group=Fabric+Properties&Family=Technical. As accessed 4/15/2003.

Neumar RW , Otto CW , Link MS , et al: Part 8: adult advanced cardiovascular life support: 2010 American Heart Association Guidelines for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation 2010; 122(18 Suppl 3):S729-S767.

None Listed: Position paper: cathartics. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2004; 42(3):243-253.

North: Chemical Resistance Comparison Chart - Protective Footwear . North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.linkpath.com/index2gisufrm.php?t=N-USA1. As accessed April 30, 2004.

North: eZ Guide Interactive Software. North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002a. Available from URL: http://www.northsafety.com/feature1.htm. As accessed 8/31/2002.

Nouchi T: Internat Arch Occup Environ Health 1984; 54:111-114.

Olmstead KV: Pathological changes in ethylene dibromide poisoning. Arch Ind Health 1960; 21:525-529.

Ott MG, Scharnweber HC, & Langner RR: Mortality experience of 161 employees exposed to ethylene dibromide in two production units. Br J Ind Med 1980; 37:163-168.

Pahwa N, Bharani R, Jain M, et al: Therapeutic plasma exchange: An effective treatment in ethylene dibromide poisoning cases. J Clin Apher 2013; 28(5):374-377.

Peate WF: Work-related eye injuries and illnesses. Am Fam Physician 2007; 75(7):1017-1022.

Peberdy MA , Callaway CW , Neumar RW , et al: 2010 American Heart Association guidelines for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and emergency cardiovascular care science. Part 9: post–cardiac arrest care. Circulation 2010; 122(18 Suppl 3):S768-S786.

Playtex: Fits Tough Jobs Like a Glove, Playtex, Westport, CT, 1995.

Ploemen J-P, Wormhoudt LW, & Haenen GR: The use of human in vitro metabolic parameters to explore the risk assessment of hazardous compounds: The case of ethylene dibromide. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1997; 143:56-69.

Pohanish RP & Greene SA: Rapid Guide to Chemical Incompatibilities, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1997.

Pollack MM, Dunbar BS, & Holbrook PR: Aspiration of activated charcoal and gastric contents. Ann Emerg Med 1981; 10:528-529.

Prakash MS, Sud K, & Kohli HS: Ethylene dibromide poisoning with acute renal failure: first reported case with non-fatal outcome. Renal Failure 1999; 21:219-222.

Press Release: Statement by William D Ruckelshaus, Administrator of the US Environmental Protection Agency, on actions taken to control the pesticide EDB. US Environmental Protection Agency, 1984.

Product Information: diazepam IM, IV injection, diazepam IM, IV injection. Hospira, Inc (per Manufacturer), Lake Forest, IL, 2008.

Product Information: dopamine hcl, 5% dextrose IV injection, dopamine hcl, 5% dextrose IV injection. Hospira,Inc, Lake Forest, IL, 2004.

Product Information: lorazepam IM, IV injection, lorazepam IM, IV injection. Akorn, Inc, Lake Forest, IL, 2008.

Product Information: norepinephrine bitartrate injection, norepinephrine bitartrate injection. Sicor Pharmaceuticals,Inc, Irvine, CA, 2005.

RTECS : Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 1999; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

RTECS : Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires May/31/2002; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.

Raffle PA, Lee WR, & McCallum RI: Hunter's Diseases of Occupations, Little, Brown & Co, Boston, MA, 1994.

Ratcliffe JM, Schrader SM, & Steenland K: Semen quality in papaya workers with long term exposure to ethylene dibromide. Br J Ind Med 1987; 44:317-326.

Rau NR, Nagaraj MV, Prakash PS, et al: Fatal pulmonary aspiration of oral activated charcoal. Br Med J 1988; 297:918-919.

Reesal MR, Shnitka TK, & Culver DB: Clostridia: An alternative cause of 'ethylene dibromide' fatalities. JAMA 1985; 254:3181-3182.

Reznik G: Arch Toxicol 1980; 46:233-240.

River City: Protective Wear Product Literature, River City, Memphis, TN, 1995.

Roberts JR: Minor burns (Pt II). Emerg Med Ambulatory Care News 1988; 10:4-5.

Rowe VK, Spencer HC, & McCollister DD: Toxicity of ethylene dibromide determined on experimental animals. Arch Ind Hyg Occup Med 1952; 6:158-173.

Rumsey DW & Tanita RK: GRA&I. National Technical Information Service, 1982.

Safety 4: North Safety Products: Chemical Protection Guide. North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.safety4.com/guide/set_guide.htm. As accessed 8/14/2002.

Saraswat PK, Kandara M, & Dhruva AK: Poisoning by ethylene dibromide -- six cases: a clinicopathological and toxicological study. Indian J Med Sci 1986; 40:121-123.

Scott R, Besag FMC, & Neville BGR: Buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for treatment of prolonged seizures in childhood and adolescence: a randomized trial. Lancet 1999; 353:623-626.

Servus: Norcross Safety Products, Servus Rubber, Servus, Rock Island, IL, 1995.

Short RD, Minor JL, & Winston JM: Inhalation of ethylene dibromide during gestation by rats and mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1978; 46:173-182.

Short RD, Winston JM, & Hong C-B: Effects of ethylene dibromide on reproduction in male and female rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1979; 49:97-105.

Shrader SM, Ratcliffe JM, & Turner TW: The use of new field methods of semen analysis in the study of occupational hazards to reproduction: the example of ethylene dibromide. J Occup Med 1987; 29:963-966.

Simpson WM & Schuman SH: Recognition and management of acute pesticide poisoning. Am Fam Physician 2002; 65(8):1599-1604.

Singh N, Jatav OP, Gupta RK, et al: Outcome of sixty four cases of ethylene dibromide ingestion treated in tertiary care hospitalSINGH2007. J Assoc Physicians India 2007; 55:842-845.

Singh S, Gupta A, & Sharma S: Case report: Non-fatal ethylene dibromide ingestion. Human Exp Toxicol 2000; 19:152-153.

Sittig M: Handbook of Toxic & Hazardous Chemicals & Carcinogens, 3rd ed, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1991.

Spiller HA & Rogers GC: Evaluation of administration of activated charcoal in the home. Pediatrics 2002; 108:E100.

Sreenath TG, Gupta P, Sharma KK, et al: Lorazepam versus diazepam-phenytoin combination in the treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children: A randomized controlled trial. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2009; Epub:Epub.

Standard Safety Equipment: Product Literature, Standard Safety Equipment, McHenry, IL, 1995.

Steenland K, Carrano A, & Clapp D: Cytogenetic studies in humans after short-term exposure to ethylene dibromide. J Occup Med 1985; 27:729-732.

Steenland K, Carrano A, & Ratcliffe J: A cytogenetic study of papaya workers exposed to ethylene dibromide. Mutat Res 1986; 170:151-160.

Stolbach A & Hoffman RS: Respiratory Principles. In: Nelson LS, Hoffman RS, Lewin NA, et al, eds. Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies, 9th ed. McGraw Hill Medical, New York, NY, 2011.

Sweeney MH, Beaumont JJ, & Waxwiler RJ: Arch Environ Health 1986; 41:23.

Takahashi W: Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 1981; 27:551-558.

Ter Harr G: An investigation of possible sterility and health effects from exposure to ethylene dibromide. Banbury Rep 1980; 5:167-188.

Teramoto S: Mutat Res 1980; 77:71-78.

Thakore S & Murphy N: The potential role of prehospital administration of activated charcoal. Emerg Med J 2002; 19:63-65.

Tingley: Chemical Degradation for Footwear and Clothing. Tingley. South Plainfield, NJ. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.tingleyrubber.com/tingley/Guide_ChemDeg.pdf. As accessed 10/16/2002.

Torkelson TR: Halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons. In: Clayton GD & Clayton FE (Eds): Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, 4th ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, NY, 1994.

Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.: Chemical and Biological Tests (database). Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.. Portsmouth, NH. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.trelleborg.com/protective/. As accessed 10/18/2002.

Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.: Trellchem Chemical Protective Suits, Interactive manual & Chemical Database. Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.. Portsmouth, NH. 2001.

Tucker JD: Mutat Res 1984; 138:93-98.

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management: Protective Action Criteria (PAC) with AEGLs, ERPGs, & TEELs: Rev. 26 for chemicals of concern. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.hss.doe.gov/HealthSafety/WSHP/Chem_Safety/teel.html. As accessed 2011-06-27.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project : 11th Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/INDEXA5E1.HTM?objectid=32BA9724-F1F6-975E-7FCE50709CB4C932. As accessed 2011-06-27.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Discarded commercial chemical products, off-specification species, container residues, and spill residues thereof. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities 2010b; 40CFR(261.33, e-f):77-.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2011. Available from URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/index.cfm?fuseaction=iris.showSubstanceList&list_type=date. As accessed 2011-06-21.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of Radionuclides. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010a. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: The list of extremely hazardous substances and their threshold planning quantities (CAS Number Order). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010c. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-part355.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.

U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Part 1910 - Occupational safety and health standards (continued) Occupational Safety, and Health Administration's (OSHA) list of highly hazardous chemicals, toxics and reactives. Subpart Z - toxic and hazardous substances. CFR 2010 2010; Vol6(SEC1910):7-.

U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA): Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals. 29 CFR 2010 2010; 29(1910.119):348-.

United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Vinyl Acetate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6af&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.

Urben PG: Bretherick's Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards, Vol 1, 5th ed, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Oxford, England, 1995.

Wells Lamont Industrial: Chemical Resistant Glove Application Chart. Wells Lamont Industrial. Morton Grove, IL. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.wellslamontindustry.com. As accessed 10/31/2002.

Williams J, Gladen BC, & Turner TW: The effects of ethylene dibromide on semen quality and fertility in the rabbit: evaluation of a model for human seminal characteristics. Fundam Appl Toxicol 1991; 16:687-700.

Willson DF, Truwit JD, Conaway MR, et al: The adult calfactant in acute respiratory distress syndrome (CARDS) trial. Chest 2015; 148(2):356-364.

Wilson DF, Thomas NJ, Markovitz BP, et al: Effect of exogenous surfactant (calfactant) in pediatric acute lung injury. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005; 293:470-476.

Wirtschafter ZT & Schwartz ED: Acute ethylene dichloride poisoning. J Ind Hyg 1939; 21:126-131.

Wong O: J Occup Med 1979; 21:98-102.

Workrite: Chemical Splash Protection Garments, Technical Data and Application Guide, W.L. Gore Material Chemical Resistance Guide, Workrite, Oxnard, CA, 1997.

Wormhoudt LW, Ploemen JH, & Dewaziers I: Inter-individual variability in the oxidation of 1,2-dibromoethane -- use of heterologously expressed human cytochrome P450 and human liver microsomes. Chem Biol Interact 1996; 101:175-192.

Yodaiken RE & Babcock JR: 1,2-dichloroethane poisoning. Arch Environ Health 1973; 26:281-284.

Zwaveling JH, de Kort WL, & Meulenbelt J: Exposure of the skin to methyl bromide: a study of six cases occupationally exposed to high concentrations during fumigation. Human Toxicol 1987; 6:491-495.

de Caen AR, Berg MD, Chameides L, et al: Part 12: Pediatric Advanced Life Support: 2015 American Heart Association Guidelines Update for Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and Emergency Cardiovascular Care. Circulation 2015; 132(18 Suppl 2):S526-S542.

FeedBack

ETHYLENE DIBROMIDE

Classification | Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents

Information to evaluate chemical incidents