Contact Us    Contact Us     |     Feedback
MOBILE VIEW  | 

ETHYL CHLORIDE

Export To Excel

Classification   |    Detailed evidence-based information

Substances Included Synonyms

Therapeutic Toxic Class

    A) Ethyl chloride is used as a refrigerant, solvent and as an alkylating agent. It was formerly used as a topical anesthetic agent.

Specific Substances

    1) Aethylis chloridum
    2) Anodyon
    3) Chelen
    4) Chlorethyl
    5) Chloridium
    6) Chloridum
    7) Chloroethane
    8) Chloryl anesthetic
    9) Cloretano (Italian)
    10) Ether Choratus
    11) Ether Hydrochloric
    12) Hydrochloric ether
    13) Kelene
    14) Monochloroethane
    15) Muriatic ether
    16) Molecular Formula: C2-H5-Cl
    17) CAS 75-00-3
    18) AETHYLCHLORIDE
    19) AETHYLIS
    1.2.1) MOLECULAR FORMULA
    1) C2-H5-Cl

Available Forms Sources

    A) FORMS
    1) Ethyl chloride is a colorless, liquefied gas with a pungent, ether-like odor and a burning taste. It is a highly flammable gas at normal temperature (above 12 degrees C; 54 degrees F) and pressure; if ethyl chloride is released from its container at normal temperatures, it vaporizes at once. Under increased pressure or low temperatures, it is a very volatile and mobile liquid (ACGIH, 1991; Ashford, 1994; Budavari, 1996; Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Harbison, 1998; Hathaway et al, 1996; ILO, 1998; Lewis, 1996; Lewis, 1997; Lewis, 1998; Verschueren, 1983).
    2) Ethyl chloride is available in technical or USP grade; high purity grade (99.7%, liquid phase); Matheson Gas Products 99.7% minimum grade; CP grade, minimum purity 99.7% (HSDB, 2003).
    B) SOURCES
    1) It can be produced by addition of ethylene and hydrogen chloride (anhydrous), by chlorination of ethane, and by alcohol chlorination involving ethanol and hydrochloric acid (Ashford, 1994).
    a) Alcohol chlorination also requires presence of zinc chloride (HSDB , 2000).
    2) This compound can be manufactured through action of chlorine on ethylene. The reaction requires either the presence of hydrochloric acid and light, or the presence of chlorides of copper, iron, antimony and calcium (HSDB, 2003).
    3) In the US, major manufacturers of ethyl chloride are:
    a) Dow Chemical USA; Production site: Freeport, TX
    b) E I duPont de Nemours & Co, Inc; Production site: Deepwater, NJ
    c) Ethyl Corp; Production site: Pasadena, TX
    d) Hercules Incorporated; Production site: Hopewell, VA
    e) PPG Industries, Inc; Production site: Lake Charles, LA
    C) USES
    1) Ethyl chloride is used in the synthesis of tetraethyl lead, ethylcellulose, and other ethyl compounds, as well as in the manufacture of perfumes, drugs, and dyes. It is used as an analytical agent, an alkylating agent, and in organic synthesis. It is utilized as a solvent for fats, oils, waxes, phosphorus, sulfur, acetylene, and various resins. Ethyl chloride is also used as an aerosol propellant, as a topical anesthetic, in refrigeration, and in insecticides (ACGIH, 1991; Ashford, 1994; Budavari, 1996; Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Harbison, 1998; Lewis, 1997; Lewis, 1998). It is used topically to detect the dermatomal level of sensory block after spinal or epidural anesthesia (Anyanwu-Okoli, 1996).
    2) Ethyl chloride is a solvent used in VCR head cleaners; however, it is being marketed on the internet as a way of experiencing a euphoric "rush" and as an aphrodisiac (Finch & Lobo, 2005).

Overview

Life Support

    A) This overview assumes that basic life support measures have been instituted.

Clinical Effects

    0.2.1) SUMMARY OF EXPOSURE
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Ethyl chloride vapors may be irritating to the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes. Exposure may produce headache, blurred vision, dizziness, incoordination, inebriation, CNS depression, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and liver or kidney damage. In animals, ethyl chloride increases myocardial sensitivity to catecholamines.
    2) The liquid is harmful to the eyes. Because of its low boiling point, its fast evaporation can cause cold injury. It is the least toxic of the chlorinated hydrocarbons.
    3) When heated to decomposition, hydrogen chloride, phosgene, chlorine, and carbon monoxide gases may be released.
    0.2.20) REPRODUCTIVE
    A) In a group of 378 women exposed to ethyl chloride and other substances, 34% had pathological changes in the genital organs related to exposure duration.

Laboratory Monitoring

    A) No toxic serum or blood concentrations have been established. Liver, blood, and kidney functions have not been significantly altered in human poisonings. Monitor ECG in patients with significant exposure.

Treatment Overview

    0.4.3) INHALATION EXPOSURE
    A) INHALATION: Move patient to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty breathing develops, evaluate for respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis. Administer oxygen and assist ventilation as required. Treat bronchospasm with an inhaled beta2-adrenergic agonist. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm.
    B) SEIZURES: Administer a benzodiazepine; DIAZEPAM (ADULT: 5 to 10 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 20 minutes as needed. CHILD: 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes; up to a maximum of 10 mg/dose. May repeat dose every 5 to 10 minutes as needed) or LORAZEPAM (ADULT: 2 to 4 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 10 minutes as needed, if seizures persist. CHILD: 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes, up to a maximum of 4 mg/dose; may repeat in 5 to 15 minutes as needed, if seizures continue).
    1) Consider phenobarbital or propofol if seizures recur after diazepam 30 mg (adults) or 10 mg (children greater than 5 years).
    2) Monitor for hypotension, dysrhythmias, respiratory depression, and need for endotracheal intubation. Evaluate for hypoglycemia, electrolyte disturbances, and hypoxia.
    C) Monitor ECG and adequacy of respirations and oxygenation.
    D) CNS depression is common and in most cases responds to supportive measures.
    E) There have been a few reported cases of sudden, unpredictable death possibly due to cardiac dysrhythmias from a lowering of the myocardial threshold to the arrhythmogenic effects of endogenous epinephrine. Monitor ECG in patients with significant exposure.
    0.4.4) EYE EXPOSURE
    A) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, the patient should be seen in a healthcare facility.
    0.4.5) DERMAL EXPOSURE
    A) OVERVIEW
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and jewelry and place them in plastic bags. Wash exposed areas with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes with gentle sponging to avoid skin breakdown. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
    2) Treat dermal irritation or burns with standard topical therapy. Patients developing dermal hypersensitivity reactions may require treatment with systemic or topical corticosteroids or antihistamines.

Range Of Toxicity

    A) Potentiation of adrenaline and resultant cardiac arrhythmias, coma, and death are the most serious concerns from acute, high-level ethyl chloride exposures.

Clinical Effects

Summary Of Exposure

    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) Ethyl chloride vapors may be irritating to the eyes, skin, and mucous membranes. Exposure may produce headache, blurred vision, dizziness, incoordination, inebriation, CNS depression, nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and liver or kidney damage. In animals, ethyl chloride increases myocardial sensitivity to catecholamines.
    2) The liquid is harmful to the eyes. Because of its low boiling point, its fast evaporation can cause cold injury. It is the least toxic of the chlorinated hydrocarbons.
    3) When heated to decomposition, hydrogen chloride, phosgene, chlorine, and carbon monoxide gases may be released.

Heent

    3.4.3) EYES
    A) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    1) IRRITATION: Eye irritation was noted when humans were exposed to airborne concentrations of 40,000 ppm (ACGIH, 1996a). Liquid ethyl chloride evaporates rapidly, and if significant amounts were to be spilled into the eyes, frostbite injury might occur (Grant & Schuman, 1993).
    2) CASE REPORT/FROSTBITE: Ethyl chloride spray was applied, without sufficient eye protection, to the superior right eyelid of a 67-year-old man during a cryocurettage procedure to remove a papilloma. Eight hours later, the patient developed severe ocular pain, visual blurring, tearing, photophobia, and redness in his right eye, with decreased visual acuity of both eyes (20/60 and 20/30 in his right and left eyes, respectively). Ophthalmologic examination of his right eye revealed a hyperpigmented scar from the procedure and acute keratoconjunctivitis with mild swelling, conjunctival hyperemia, and chemosis with localized areas of necrosis, indicating ocular surface frostbite. Treatment included copious irrigation of the right eye, and prednisone and neomycin ointments, with resolution of the eyelid lesion and the keratoconjunctivitis, as well as improvement in his vision to 20/20, one week later; however early cicatrization occurred, involving the inferior conjunctival fornix and symblepharon formation (Rodriguez & Ascaso, 2012).

Cardiovascular

    3.5.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) CONDUCTION DISORDER OF THE HEART
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) Concentrations of 20,000 ppm have reportedly caused cardiac depression. Sensitizing effects on the myocardium may occur. Cardiac arrhythmias have been reported with exposure to high concentrations (Bingham et al, 2001; Hathaway et al, 1996a).
    3.5.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) In dogs anesthetized with ethyl chloride, cardiac irregularities were noted including ventricular tachycardia, ventricular standstill, and asystole (ACGIH, 2001).

Respiratory

    3.6.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) RESPIRATORY DISORDER
    a) Lung congestion, hemorrhage, and pulmonary edema were observed in experimental animals (ACGIH, 2001).

Neurologic

    3.7.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEFICIT
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) CNS depression , dizziness, and stupor may occur. Exposure to 19,000 ppm for 12 minutes has caused mild analgesia; after exposure to 13,000 ppm, slight symptoms of inebriation have been noted (Hathaway et al, 1996a; Bingham et al, 2001; Soult & Walker, 1993).
    b) CASE REPORT: A 41-year-old man presented to the emergency department with drowsiness, tremor, weakness, ataxia, and visual hallucinations. Various diagnostic tests, including CT scan, MRI, lumbar puncture, and serum ethanol and urine drug screens, were negative. Two days after hospital admission, the patient admitted intentionally inhaling up to 2 VCR head cleaner canisters, containing ethyl chloride, over a 4- to 5-hour period up to several times each week. The patient stated that weakness, shakiness, and an inability to walk would occasionally occur following heavy inhalant abuse, with the symptoms persisting for several days. With supportive care, the patient gradually recovered (Finch & Lobo, 2005).
    B) NEUROTOXICITY
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) CASE REPORT: INHALATION: A 45-year-old HIV positive man with an undetectable viral load and a CD4 count of 409 who had been inhaling 6 to 18 cans of ethyl chloride (Maximum Impact (TM)) through a saturated cloth daily for 5 months presented to the emergency department with slurred speech, an unsteady, wide based gait and unable to walk without assistance. Neurologic examination showed symmetrically brisk deep tendon reflexes, bilateral ankle and patellar clonus, and weakened hip flexors and extensors. ECG and brain CT were unremarkable and laboratory testing was within normal limits. After revealing his exposure, the patient recovered completely within 1 week of discontinuing the inhalant (Demarest et al, 2011).

Gastrointestinal

    3.8.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) ABDOMINAL PAIN
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) Abdominal cramps have been reported following exposure to airborne concentrations of 20,000 ppm (Hathaway et al, 1996a).

Hepatic

    3.9.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) HEPATOCELLULAR DAMAGE
    a) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) HEPATOCELLULAR VACUOLATION: Increased liver weights and hepatocellular vacuolation were the only observed effects in mice exposed for 23 hours/day to 5000 ppm ethyl chloride for 11 consecutive days (Landry et al, 1989).

Genitourinary

    3.10.3) ANIMAL EFFECTS
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) In experimental animals, chronic exposure has caused kidney damage (Baselt, 2000).

Dermatologic

    3.14.2) CLINICAL EFFECTS
    A) FROSTBITE
    1) WITH POISONING/EXPOSURE
    a) If spilled on the skin, ethyl chloride evaporates rapidly and may cause cooling and possible frostbite injury (ACGIH, 2001).
    B) ECZEMA
    1) WITH THERAPEUTIC USE
    a) There has been a single report of 2 cases of eczema caused by administration of the spray (Bingham et al, 2001a).
    C) CONTACT DERMATITIS
    1) WITH THERAPEUTIC USE
    a) Allergic contact dermatitis has occurred in patients treated with topical ethyl chloride preparations (Aberer & Zontzits, 1989; Aberer, 1991; Kriechbaumer et al, 1998; Bircher et al, 1994).

Reproductive

    3.20.1) SUMMARY
    A) In a group of 378 women exposed to ethyl chloride and other substances, 34% had pathological changes in the genital organs related to exposure duration.
    3.20.2) TERATOGENICITY
    A) ANIMAL STUDIES
    1) Mice exposed to ethyl chloride at concentrations of 500, 1500, or 5000 ppm during organogenesis produced no teratogenic effects(ACGIH, 2001).

Carcinogenicity

    3.21.1) IARC CATEGORY
    A) IARC Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS75-00-3 (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004):
    1) IARC Classification
    a) Listed as: Chloroethane
    b) Carcinogen Rating: 3
    1) The agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category.
    3.21.4) ANIMAL STUDIES
    A) CARCINOMA
    1) TUMORIGENIC EFFECTS - Equivocal tumorigenic agent by RTECS criteria; skin and appendage tumors were observed in rats exposed to 15000 ppm/6H/2yrs (intermittent); liver and uterine tumors were also seen in mice exposed to the same concentration(RTECS, 2003).
    2) ACGIH has classified ethyl chloride as a confirmed animal carcinogen with unknown relevance to humans(ACGIH, 2001).

Genotoxicity

    A) Ethyl chloride has caused bacterial mutations, but was inactive in a cancer cell transformation study.

Laboratory Monitoring

Monitoring Parameters Levels

    4.1.1) SUMMARY
    A) No toxic serum or blood concentrations have been established. Liver, blood, and kidney functions have not been significantly altered in human poisonings. Monitor ECG in patients with significant exposure.

Methods

    A) CHROMATOGRAPHY
    1) Ethyl chloride can be analyzed in biological samples by gas chromatography, but often co-elutes and is mistaken for ethanol (Laferty, 1994).
    2) The ethyl chloride metabolite S-ethyl-N-acetyl-L-cysteine can be measured in urine by high-performance liquid chromatography (Eskinja et al, 1997).
    B) LEVELS
    1) Blood levels in a fatal case were 20 mg/dL on hospital admission and 65 mg/dL postmortem. The postmortem vitreous humor level was 41.7 mg/dL (Yacoub et al, 1993a).

Treatment

Life Support

    A) Support respiratory and cardiovascular function.

Monitoring

    A) No toxic serum or blood concentrations have been established. Liver, blood, and kidney functions have not been significantly altered in human poisonings. Monitor ECG in patients with significant exposure.

Inhalation Exposure

    6.7.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) Move patient from the toxic environment to fresh air. Monitor for respiratory distress. If cough or difficulty in breathing develops, evaluate for hypoxia, respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, or pneumonitis.
    B) OBSERVATION: Carefully observe patients with inhalation exposure for the development of any systemic signs or symptoms and administer symptomatic treatment as necessary.
    C) INITIAL TREATMENT: Administer 100% humidified supplemental oxygen, perform endotracheal intubation and provide assisted ventilation as required. Administer inhaled beta-2 adrenergic agonists, if bronchospasm develops. Consider systemic corticosteroids in patients with significant bronchospasm (National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute, 2007). Exposed skin and eyes should be flushed with copious amounts of water.
    6.7.2) TREATMENT
    A) SEIZURE
    1) SUMMARY
    a) Attempt initial control with a benzodiazepine (eg, diazepam, lorazepam). If seizures persist or recur, administer phenobarbital or propofol.
    b) Monitor for respiratory depression, hypotension, and dysrhythmias. Endotracheal intubation should be performed in patients with persistent seizures.
    c) Evaluate for hypoxia, electrolyte disturbances, and hypoglycemia (or, if immediate bedside glucose testing is not available, treat with intravenous dextrose).
    2) DIAZEPAM
    a) ADULT DOSE: Initially 5 to 10 mg IV, OR 0.15 mg/kg IV up to 10 mg per dose up to a rate of 5 mg/minute; may be repeated every 5 to 20 minutes as needed (Brophy et al, 2012; Prod Info diazepam IM, IV injection, 2008; Manno, 2003).
    b) PEDIATRIC DOSE: 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes; up to a maximum of 10 mg/dose. May repeat dose every 5 to 10 minutes as needed (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011; Hegenbarth & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs, 2008).
    c) Monitor for hypotension, respiratory depression, and the need for endotracheal intubation. Consider a second agent if seizures persist or recur after repeated doses of diazepam .
    3) NO INTRAVENOUS ACCESS
    a) DIAZEPAM may be given rectally or intramuscularly (Manno, 2003). RECTAL DOSE: CHILD: Greater than 12 years: 0.2 mg/kg; 6 to 11 years: 0.3 mg/kg; 2 to 5 years: 0.5 mg/kg (Brophy et al, 2012).
    b) MIDAZOLAM has been used intramuscularly and intranasally, particularly in children when intravenous access has not been established. ADULT DOSE: 0.2 mg/kg IM, up to a maximum dose of 10 mg (Brophy et al, 2012). PEDIATRIC DOSE: INTRAMUSCULAR: 0.2 mg/kg IM, up to a maximum dose of 7 mg (Chamberlain et al, 1997) OR 10 mg IM (weight greater than 40 kg); 5 mg IM (weight 13 to 40 kg); INTRANASAL: 0.2 to 0.5 mg/kg up to a maximum of 10 mg/dose (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011; Brophy et al, 2012). BUCCAL midazolam, 10 mg, has been used in adolescents and older children (5-years-old or more) to control seizures when intravenous access was not established (Scott et al, 1999).
    4) LORAZEPAM
    a) MAXIMUM RATE: The rate of intravenous administration of lorazepam should not exceed 2 mg/min (Brophy et al, 2012; Prod Info lorazepam IM, IV injection, 2008).
    b) ADULT DOSE: 2 to 4 mg IV initially; repeat every 5 to 10 minutes as needed, if seizures persist (Manno, 2003; Brophy et al, 2012).
    c) PEDIATRIC DOSE: 0.05 to 0.1 mg/kg IV over 2 to 5 minutes, up to a maximum of 4 mg/dose; may repeat in 5 to 15 minutes as needed, if seizures continue (Brophy et al, 2012; Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011; Hegenbarth & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs, 2008; Sreenath et al, 2009; Chin et al, 2008).
    5) PHENOBARBITAL
    a) ADULT LOADING DOSE: 20 mg/kg IV at an infusion rate of 50 to 100 mg/minute IV. An additional 5 to 10 mg/kg dose may be given 10 minutes after loading infusion if seizures persist or recur (Brophy et al, 2012).
    b) Patients receiving high doses will require endotracheal intubation and may require vasopressor support (Brophy et al, 2012).
    c) PEDIATRIC LOADING DOSE: 20 mg/kg may be given as single or divided application (2 mg/kg/minute in children weighing less than 40 kg up to 100 mg/min in children weighing greater than 40 kg). A plasma concentration of about 20 mg/L will be achieved by this dose (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011).
    d) REPEAT PEDIATRIC DOSE: Repeat doses of 5 to 20 mg/kg may be given every 15 to 20 minutes if seizures persist, with cardiorespiratory monitoring (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011).
    e) MONITOR: For hypotension, respiratory depression, and the need for endotracheal intubation (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011; Manno, 2003).
    f) SERUM CONCENTRATION MONITORING: Monitor serum concentrations over the next 12 to 24 hours. Therapeutic serum concentrations of phenobarbital range from 10 to 40 mcg/mL, although the optimal plasma concentration for some individuals may vary outside this range (Hvidberg & Dam, 1976; Choonara & Rane, 1990; AMA Department of Drugs, 1992).
    6) OTHER AGENTS
    a) If seizures persist after phenobarbital, propofol or pentobarbital infusion, or neuromuscular paralysis with general anesthesia (isoflurane) and continuous EEG monitoring should be considered (Manno, 2003). Other anticonvulsants can be considered (eg, valproate sodium, levetiracetam, lacosamide, topiramate) if seizures persist or recur; however, there is very little data regarding their use in toxin induced seizures, controlled trials are not available to define the optimal dosage ranges for these agents in status epilepticus (Brophy et al, 2012):
    1) VALPROATE SODIUM: ADULT DOSE: An initial dose of 20 to 40 mg/kg IV, at a rate of 3 to 6 mg/kg/minute; may give an additional dose of 20 mg/kg 10 minutes after loading infusion. PEDIATRIC DOSE: 1.5 to 3 mg/kg/minute (Brophy et al, 2012).
    2) LEVETIRACETAM: ADULT DOSE: 1000 to 3000 mg IV, at a rate of 2 to 5 mg/kg/min IV. PEDIATRIC DOSE: 20 to 60 mg/kg IV (Brophy et al, 2012; Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011).
    3) LACOSAMIDE: ADULT DOSE: 200 to 400 mg IV; 200 mg IV over 15 minutes (Brophy et al, 2012). PEDIATRIC DOSE: In one study, median starting doses of 1.3 mg/kg/day and maintenance doses of 4.7 mg/kg/day were used in children 8 years and older (Loddenkemper & Goodkin, 2011).
    4) TOPIRAMATE: ADULT DOSE: 200 to 400 mg nasogastric/orally OR 300 to 1600 mg/day orally divided in 2 to 4 times daily (Brophy et al, 2012).
    B) MONITORING OF PATIENT
    1) Monitor ECG and adequacy of respirations and oxygenation.

Eye Exposure

    6.8.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) EYE IRRIGATION, ROUTINE: Remove contact lenses and irrigate exposed eyes with copious amounts of room temperature 0.9% saline or water for at least 15 minutes. If irritation, pain, swelling, lacrimation, or photophobia persist after 15 minutes of irrigation, an ophthalmologic examination should be performed (Peate, 2007; Naradzay & Barish, 2006).

Dermal Exposure

    6.9.1) DECONTAMINATION
    A) DERMAL DECONTAMINATION
    1) DECONTAMINATION: Remove contaminated clothing and wash exposed area thoroughly with soap and water for 10 to 15 minutes. A physician may need to examine the area if irritation or pain persists (Burgess et al, 1999).
    6.9.2) TREATMENT
    A) IRRITATION SYMPTOM
    1) Treat dermal irritation or burns with standard topical therapy. Patients developing dermal hypersensitivity reactions may require treatment with systemic or topical corticosteroids or antihistamines.

Range Of Toxicity

Summary

    A) Potentiation of adrenaline and resultant cardiac arrhythmias, coma, and death are the most serious concerns from acute, high-level ethyl chloride exposures.

Minimum Lethal Exposure

    A) The minimum lethal human dose to this agent has not been delineated.
    B) Potentiation of adrenaline and resultant cardiac arrhythmias, coma, and death are the most serious concerns from acute, high-level ethyl chloride exposures (ACGIH, 1991) Baselt & Cravey, 1995; (Clayton & Clayton, 1994).
    1) During hospital treatment, a young adult who was discovered unresponsive following recreational ethyl chloride abuse had a 200 mg/L serum concentration of ethyl chloride; he was pronounced dead after 1 hour of resuscitative measures, and postmortem blood tests yielded a level of 650 mg/L ethyl chloride(Baselt, 2000).
    C) CASE REPORT: A 30-year-old male was found dead with 4 cans (3 empty and 1 partially empty) containing ethyl chloride labeled as VCR head cleaner next to the body. Ethyl chloride concentrations found in blood, urine, vitreous, brain, and lungs were 423 mg/L, 35 mg/L, 12 mg/L, 858 mg/kg, and 86 mg/kg, respectively(Broussard et al, 2000).
    D) CASE REPORTS: In a traffic fatality, the ethyl chloride concentration in blood was 110 mg/dL. In another case, the postmortem blood concentration was 65 mg/dL(Yacoub et al, 1993).

Maximum Tolerated Exposure

    A) Ethyl chloride is mildly toxic if inhaled and is a skin, eye, and mucous membrane irritant; compared with all other chlorinated hydrocarbons, it is the least toxic (Lewis, 1996).
    1) Ethyl chloride exposure can cause CNS depression, increased respiratory rate, dizziness, incoordination, euphoria, abdominal cramps, and cardiac depression. Its irritating properties provide some warning of its presence, but it is possible to tolerate exposure to the point of unconsciousness (Lewis, 1996; Hathaway et al, 1996; Lewis, 1998).
    2) Humans exposed to ethyl chloride at increasing amounts showed increased symptoms of exposure (ACGIH, 1991):
    a) At 1.3% ethyl chloride exposure, intoxication began and increased with increased dosage.
    b) Memory loss started at 1.9%, and increased as dosage increased.
    c) At 2.5% exposure, incoordination was noted.
    d) At 3.36% ethyl chloride exposure, incoordination and noisy talkativeness were followed by a recovery period including cyanosis, nausea, and vomiting.
    3) Liquid ethyl chloride or over application of ethyl chloride as a topical spray can result in freezing and tissue necrosis (Baselt & Cravey, 1995; (Hathaway et al, 1996).

Serum Plasma Blood Concentrations

    7.5.2) TOXIC CONCENTRATIONS
    A) TOXIC CONCENTRATION LEVELS
    1) CASE REPORT - A 30-year-old man was found unresponsive with 3 empty and one partially empty cans of VCR head cleaner and a rag was held loosely in his mouth. Post mortem ethyl chloride levels were: urine 35 mg/L; blood 423 mg/L; vitreous 12 mg/L; brain 858 mg/kg; and lung 86 mg/kg (Broussard et al, 2000).

Workplace Standards

    A) ACGIH TLV Values for CAS75-00-3 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010):
    1) Editor's Note: The listed values are recommendations or guidelines developed by ACGIH(R) to assist in the control of health hazards. They should only be used, interpreted and applied by individuals trained in industrial hygiene. Before applying these values, it is imperative to read the introduction to each section in the current TLVs(R) and BEI(R) Book and become familiar with the constraints and limitations to their use. Always consult the Documentation of the TLVs(R) and BEIs(R) before applying these recommendations and guidelines.
    a) Adopted Value
    1) Ethyl chloride
    a) TLV:
    1) TLV-TWA: 100 ppm
    2) TLV-STEL:
    3) TLV-Ceiling:
    b) Notations and Endnotes:
    1) Carcinogenicity Category: A3
    2) Codes: Skin
    3) Definitions:
    a) A3: Confirmed Animal Carcinogen with Unknown Relevance to Humans: The agent is carcinogenic in experimental animals at a relatively high dose, by route(s) of administration, at site(s), of histologic type(s), or by mechanism(s) that may not be relevant to worker exposure. Available epidemiologic studies do not confirm an increased risk of cancer in exposed humans. Available evidence does not suggest that the agent is likely to cause cancer in humans except under uncommon or unlikely routes or levels of exposure.
    b) Skin: This refers to the potential significant contribution to the overall exposure by the cutaneous route, including mucous membranes and the eyes, either by contact with vapors or, of likely greater significance, by direct skin contact with the substance. It should be noted that although some materials are capable of causing irritation, dermatitis, and sensitization in workers, these properties are not considered relevant when assigning a skin notation. Rather, data from acute dermal studies and repeated dose dermal studies in animals or humans, along with the ability of the chemical to be absorbed, are integrated in the decision-making toward assignment of the skin designation. Use of the skin designation provides an alert that air sampling would not be sufficient by itself in quantifying exposure from the substance and that measures to prevent significant cutaneous absorption may be warranted. Please see "Definitions and Notations" (in TLV booklet) for full definition.
    c) TLV Basis - Critical Effect(s): Liver dam
    d) Molecular Weight: 64.52
    1) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from ppm to mg/m(3):
    a) [(TLV in ppm)(gram molecular weight of substance)]/24.45
    2) For gases and vapors, to convert the TLV from mg/m(3) to ppm:
    a) [(TLV in mg/m(3))(24.45)]/gram molecular weight of substance
    e) Additional information:

    B) NIOSH REL and IDLH Values for CAS75-00-3 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007):
    1) Listed as: Ethyl chloride
    2) REL:
    a) TWA: Handle with caution in the workplace.
    b) STEL:
    c) Ceiling:
    d) Carcinogen Listing: (Not Listed) Not Listed
    e) Skin Designation: Not Listed
    f) Note(s): See Appendix C (Chloroethanes)
    3) IDLH:
    a) IDLH: 3800 ppm
    b) Note(s): [10%LEL]
    1) [10%LEL]: The 10%LEL designation is provided where the IDLH was based on 10% of the lower explosive limit. This is used for safety purposes in some cases even though toxicity is not indicative of irreversible health effects or impairment of escape exists only at higher concentrations.

    C) Carcinogenicity Ratings for CAS75-00-3 :
    1) ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, 2010): A3 ; Listed as: Ethyl chloride
    a) A3 :Confirmed Animal Carcinogen with Unknown Relevance to Humans: The agent is carcinogenic in experimental animals at a relatively high dose, by route(s) of administration, at site(s), of histologic type(s), or by mechanism(s) that may not be relevant to worker exposure. Available epidemiologic studies do not confirm an increased risk of cancer in exposed humans. Available evidence does not suggest that the agent is likely to cause cancer in humans except under uncommon or unlikely routes or levels of exposure.
    2) EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011): Not Assessed under the IRIS program. ; Listed as: Ethyl chloride
    3) IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 2016; International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2010a; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2008; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2007; IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2006; IARC, 2004): 3 ; Listed as: Chloroethane
    a) 3 : The agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans. This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category.
    4) NIOSH (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2007): Not Listed ; Listed as: Ethyl chloride
    5) MAK (DFG, 2002): Category 3B ; Listed as: Chloroethane
    a) Category 3B : Substances for which in vitro or animal studies have yielded evidence of carcinogenic effects that is not sufficient for classification of the substance in one of the other categories. Further studies are required before a final decision can be made. A MAK value can be established provided no genotoxic effects have been detected. (Footnote: In the past, when a substance was classified as Category 3 it was given a MAK value provided that it had no detectable genotoxic effects. When all such substances have been examined for whether or not they may be classified in Category 4, this sentence may be omitted.)
    6) NTP (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project ): Not Listed

    D) OSHA PEL Values for CAS75-00-3 (U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA), 2010):
    1) Listed as: Ethyl chloride
    2) Table Z-1 for Ethyl chloride:
    a) 8-hour TWA:
    1) ppm: 1000
    a) Parts of vapor or gas per million parts of contaminated air by volume at 25 degrees C and 760 torr.
    2) mg/m3: 2600
    a) Milligrams of substances per cubic meter of air. When entry is in this column only, the value is exact; when listed with a ppm entry, it is approximate.
    3) Ceiling Value:
    4) Skin Designation: No
    5) Notation(s): Not Listed

Toxicity Information

    7.7.1) TOXICITY VALUES
    A) References: HSDB, 2003 Lewis, 1996 OHM/TADS, 2003 RTECS, 2003
    1) TCLo- (INHALATION)HUMAN:
    a) 13,000 ppm
    b) 13,000 g/m(3)
    2) TCLo- (INHALATION)MOUSE:
    a) 15,000 ppm for 6H/2Y-I -- carcinogenic effects, tumors in liver and uterus
    b) 5,000 ppm for 23H/11D-I -- changes in liver weight
    c) 19,000 ppm for 6H/13W-I -- changes in liver weight
    3) TCLo- (INHALATION)RAT:
    a) 15,000 ppm for 6H/2Y-I -- equivocal tumorigenic agent, tumors on skin and appendages
    b) 14 g/m(3) for 2H/60D-I -- altered recordings from specific areas of CNS, decrease in cellular immune response
    c) 570 mg/m(3) for 4H/26W-I -- decrese in cellular immune response, weight loss or decreased weight gain
    d) 19,000 ppm for 6H/13W-I -- changes in liver weight
    e) Male, 60 mg/m(3) for 4H for 26W prior to mating -- changes in spermatogenesis

Physicochemical

Physical Characteristics

    A) Ethyl chloride is a colorless, liquefied gas with a pungent, ether-like odor and a burning taste. At normal temperature (above 12 degrees C; 54 degrees F) and pressure, it is a highly flammable gas; it vaporizes at once if released from its container at normal temperatures. Ethyl chloride is a very volatile and mobile liquid under increased pressure or low temperatures, (ACGIH, 1991; Ashford, 1994; Budavari, 1996; Clayton & Clayton, 1994; Harbison, 1998; Hathaway et al, 1996; ILO, 1998; Lewis, 1996; Lewis, 1997; Lewis, 1998; Verschueren, 1983).
    B) This compound floats and may boil on water (CHRIS, 2003).
    C) When ignited, ethyl chloride burns with a smoky, greenish flame (HSDB, 2003).
    D) Ethyl chloride is thermally stable to a temperature of 400 degrees C. Above this temperature, the compound decomposes, producing ethylene and hydrogen chloride (HSDB, 2003).

Molecular Weight

    A) 64.51

Other

    A) ODOR THRESHOLD
    1) 10-12 mg/m(3) (recognition) (Verschueren, 1983)

References

General Bibliography

    1) 40 CFR 372.28: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Lower thresholds for chemicals of special concern. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO). Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.
    2) 40 CFR 372.65: Environmental Protection Agency - Toxic Chemical Release Reporting, Community Right-To-Know, Chemicals and Chemical Categories to which this part applies. National Archives and Records Association (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Apr 3, 2006.
    3) 49 CFR 172.101 - App. B: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials, Appendix B: List of Marine Pollutants. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 29, 2005.
    4) 49 CFR 172.101: Department of Transportation - Table of Hazardous Materials. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC. Final rules current as of Aug 11, 2005.
    5) 62 FR 58840: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 1997.
    6) 65 FR 14186: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.
    7) 65 FR 39264: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.
    8) 65 FR 77866: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2000.
    9) 66 FR 21940: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2001.
    10) 67 FR 7164: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2002.
    11) 68 FR 42710: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2003.
    12) 69 FR 54144: Notice of the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances - Proposed AEGL Values, Environmental Protection Agency, NAC/AEGL Committee. National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) and the Government Publishing Office (GPO), Washington, DC, 2004.
    13) ACGIH: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 5th ed, Am Conference of Govt Ind Hyg, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, 1986.
    14) ACGIH: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 6th ed, Am Conference of Govt Ind Hyg, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, 1991.
    15) ACGIH: Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices, 7th ed, Am Conference of Govt Ind Hyg, Inc, Cincinnati, OH, 2001.
    16) AIHA: 2006 Emergency Response Planning Guidelines and Workplace Environmental Exposure Level Guides Handbook, American Industrial Hygiene Association, Fairfax, VA, 2006.
    17) AMA Department of DrugsAMA Department of Drugs: AMA Evaluations Subscription, American Medical Association, Chicago, IL, 1992.
    18) Aberer W & Zontzits E: Allergy to ethyl chloride does occur, and might frequently be misdiagnosed. Contact Dermatitis 1989; 21:352-353.
    19) Aberer W: Local anaesthesia with ethyl chloride freezing: despite proper application. Br J Dermatol 1991; 124:113-114.
    20) American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists : ACGIH 2010 Threshold Limit Values (TLVs(R)) for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs(R)), American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH, 2010.
    21) Ansell-Edmont: SpecWare Chemical Application and Recommendation Guide. Ansell-Edmont. Coshocton, OH. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.ansellpro.com/specware. As accessed 10/31/2001.
    22) Anyanwu-Okoli I: cutaneous application of ethyl chloride spray. Regional Anesthesia 1996; 21:77-78.
    23) Ashford R: Ashford's Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals, Wavelength Publications Ltd, London, England, 1994.
    24) Baselt RC: Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemical in Man, 5th ed, Chemical Toxicology Institute, Foster City, CA, 2000.
    25) Bata Shoe Company: Industrial Footwear Catalog, Bata Shoe Company, Belcamp, MD, 1995.
    26) Best Manufacturing: ChemRest Chemical Resistance Guide. Best Manufacturing. Menlo, GA. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.chemrest.com. As accessed 10/8/2002.
    27) Best Manufacturing: Degradation and Permeation Data. Best Manufacturing. Menlo, GA. 2004. Available from URL: http://www.chemrest.com/DomesticPrep2/. As accessed 04/09/2004.
    28) Bingham E, Cohrssen B, & Powell CH: Patty's Toxicology Vol. 6, 5th ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, NY, 2001.
    29) Bingham E, Cohrssen B, & Powell CH: Patty's Toxicology, Vol 5, 5th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2001a.
    30) Bircher AJ, Hampl K, & Hirsbrunner P: Allergic contact dermatitis from ethyl chloride and sensitization to dichlorofluoromethane (CFC 12). Contact Dermatitis 1994; 31:41-44.
    31) Boss Manufacturing Company: Work Gloves, Boss Manufacturing Company, Kewanee, IL, 1998.
    32) Brophy GM, Bell R, Claassen J, et al: Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2012; 17(1):3-23.
    33) Broussard LA, Broussard AK, & Pittman TS: Death due to inhalation of ethyl chloride. J FOrensic Sci 2000; 45:223-225.
    34) Budavari S: The Merck Index, 12th ed, Merck & Co, Inc, Whitehouse Station, NJ, 1996.
    35) Burgess JL, Kirk M, Borron SW, et al: Emergency department hazardous materials protocol for contaminated patients. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 34(2):205-212.
    36) CHRIS: CHRIS Hazardous Chemical Data. US Department of Transportation, US Coast Guard. Washington, DC (Internet Version). Edition expires 2003; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
    37) Chamberlain JM, Altieri MA, & Futterman C: A prospective, randomized study comparing intramuscular midazolam with intravenous diazepam for the treatment of seizures in children. Ped Emerg Care 1997; 13:92-94.
    38) ChemFab Corporation: Chemical Permeation Guide Challenge Protective Clothing Fabrics, ChemFab Corporation, Merrimack, NH, 1993.
    39) Chin RF , Neville BG , Peckham C , et al: Treatment of community-onset, childhood convulsive status epilepticus: a prospective, population-based study. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7(8):696-703.
    40) Choonara IA & Rane A: Therapeutic drug monitoring of anticonvulsants state of the art. Clin Pharmacokinet 1990; 18:318-328.
    41) Clayton GD & Clayton FE: Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Vol 2E. Toxicology, 4th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 1994.
    42) Comasec Safety, Inc.: Chemical Resistance to Permeation Chart. Comasec Safety, Inc.. Enfield, CT. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.comasec.com/webcomasec/english/catalogue/mtabgb.html. As accessed 4/28/2003.
    43) Comasec Safety, Inc.: Product Literature, Comasec Safety, Inc., Enfield, CT, 2003a.
    44) DFG: List of MAK and BAT Values 2002, Report No. 38, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Commission for the Investigation of Health Hazards of Chemical Compounds in the Work Area, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Federal Republic of Germany, 2002.
    45) Demarest C, Torgovnick J, Sethi NK, et al: Acute reversible neurotoxicity associated with inhalation of ethyl chloride: a case report. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2011; 113(10):909-910.
    46) DuPont: DuPont Suit Smart: Interactive Tool for the Selection of Protective Apparel. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2002. Available from URL: http://personalprotection.dupont.com/protectiveapparel/suitsmart/smartsuit2/na_english.asp. As accessed 10/31/2002.
    47) DuPont: Permeation Guide for DuPont Tychem Protective Fabrics. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2003. Available from URL: http://personalprotection.dupont.com/en/pdf/tyvektychem/pgcomplete20030128.pdf. As accessed 4/26/2004.
    48) DuPont: Permeation Test Results. DuPont. Wilmington, DE. 2002a. Available from URL: http://www.tyvekprotectiveapprl.com/databases/default.htm. As accessed 7/31/2002.
    49) EPA: Search results for Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Inventory Chemicals. US Environmental Protection Agency, Substance Registry System, U.S. EPA's Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.epa.gov/srs/.
    50) ERG: Emergency Response Guidebook. A Guidebook for First Responders During the Initial Phase of a Dangerous Goods/Hazardous Materials Incident, U.S. Department of Transportation, Research and Special Programs Administration, Washington, DC, 2004.
    51) Ebert R, Fedtke N, & Certa H: Genotoxic studies with chloroethane. Mutat Res 1994; 322:33-44.
    52) Eskinja M, Lamprecht G, & Scherer G: Assay of S-ethyl-N-acetyl-L-cysteine in urine by high-performance liquid chromatography using post-column reaction detection. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl 1997; 704:159-165.
    53) Fedtke N, Certa H, & Ebert R: Species differences in the biotransformation of ethyl chloride. I. Cytochrome P450-dependent metabolism. Arch Toxicol 1994a; 68:158-166.
    54) Fedtke N, Certa H, & Ebert R: Species differences in the biotransformation of ethyl chloride. II. GSH-dependent metabolism. Arch Toxicol 1994b; 68:217-223.
    55) Finch CK & Lobo BL: Acute inhalant-induced neurotoxicity with delayed recovery. Ann Pharmacother 2005; 39:169-172.
    56) Gohlke R & Schmidt P: Subacute action of low concentrations of chlorinated ethanes on rats with and without additional ethanol-treatment. II. Histological, histochemical and morphometrical studies (German). Internat Arch Arbeitsmed 1972; 30:299-312.
    57) Grant WM & Schuman JS: Toxicology of the Eye 4th ed, Charles C Thomas, Springfield, IL, 1993.
    58) Grieve AW, Davis P, Dhillon S, et al: A clinical review of the management of frostbite. J R Army Med Corps 2011; 157(1):73-78.
    59) Guardian Manufacturing Group: Guardian Gloves Test Results. Guardian Manufacturing Group. Willard, OH. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.guardian-mfg.com/guardianmfg.html. As accessed 12/11/2001.
    60) H Shepard : Shepard's Catalog of Teratogenic Agents. 8th Ed. University of Washington. Seattle, WA. 1995.
    61) HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 2003; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
    62) HSDB : Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. Bethesda, MD (Internet Version). Edition expires 4/30/2000; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
    63) Hallam MJ, Cubison T, Dheansa B, et al: Managing frostbite. BMJ 2010; 341:c5864-.
    64) Harbison RD: Hamilton & Hardy's Industrial Toxicology, 5th ed, Mosby-Year Books, St. Louis, MO, 1998.
    65) Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, & Hughes JP: Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 4th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1996.
    66) Hathaway GJ, Proctor NH, & Hughes JP: Proctor and Hughes' Chemical Hazards of the Workplace, 4th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1996a.
    67) Hegenbarth MA & American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs: Preparing for pediatric emergencies: drugs to consider. Pediatrics 2008; 121(2):433-443.
    68) Howard PH, Boethling RS, & Jarvis WF: Handbook of Environmental Degradation Rates, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1991.
    69) Howard PH: Handbook of Environmental Fate and Exposure Data for Organic Chemicals. Volume II: Solvents, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1990.
    70) Hvidberg EF & Dam M: Clinical pharmacokinetics of anticonvulsants. Clin Pharmacokinet 1976; 1:161.
    71) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: 1,3-Butadiene, Ethylene Oxide and Vinyl Halides (Vinyl Fluoride, Vinyl Chloride and Vinyl Bromide), 97, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2008.
    72) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Formaldehyde, 2-Butoxyethanol and 1-tert-Butoxypropan-2-ol, 88, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2006.
    73) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Household Use of Solid Fuels and High-temperature Frying, 95, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010a.
    74) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Smokeless Tobacco and Some Tobacco-specific N-Nitrosamines, 89, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2007.
    75) IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans : IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Some Non-heterocyclic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Some Related Exposures, 92, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France, 2010.
    76) IARC: List of all agents, mixtures and exposures evaluated to date - IARC Monographs: Overall Evaluations of Carcinogenicity to Humans, Volumes 1-88, 1972-PRESENT. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer. Lyon, FranceAvailable from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/monoeval/crthall.html. As accessed Oct 07, 2004.
    77) ICAO: Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air, 2003-2004. International Civil Aviation Organization, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2002.
    78) ILC Dover, Inc.: Ready 1 The Chemturion Limited Use Chemical Protective Suit, ILC Dover, Inc., Frederica, DE, 1998.
    79) ILO: Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, 4th ed. Vols 1-4, International Labour Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1998.
    80) ITI: Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemicals Safety Manual, The International Technical Information Institute, Tokyo, Japan, 1995.
    81) International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC): IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans: list of classifications, volumes 1-116. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Lyon, France. 2016. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/latest_classif.php. As accessed 2016-08-24.
    82) International Agency for Research on Cancer: IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. World Health Organization. Geneva, Switzerland. 2015. Available from URL: http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/. As accessed 2015-08-06.
    83) Kappler, Inc.: Suit Smart. Kappler, Inc.. Guntersville, AL. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.kappler.com/suitsmart/smartsuit2/na_english.asp?select=1. As accessed 7/10/2001.
    84) Kimberly-Clark, Inc.: Chemical Test Results. Kimberly-Clark, Inc.. Atlanta, GA. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.kc-safety.com/tech_cres.html. As accessed 10/4/2002.
    85) Kriechbaumer N, Hemmer W, & Focke M: Sensitization to ethyl chloride in a handball player. Contact Dermatitis 1998; 38:227-228.
    86) LaCrosse-Rainfair: Safety Products, LaCrosse-Rainfair, Racine, WI, 1997.
    87) Laferty PI: Ethyl chloride -- possible misidentification as ethanol. J Forens Sci 1994; 39:261-265.
    88) Landry TD: Fundam Appl Toxicol 1982; 2:230-234.
    89) Lewis RA: Lewis' Dictionary of Toxicology, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, 1998.
    90) Lewis RJ: Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 13th ed, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, NY, 1997.
    91) Lewis RJ: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 10th ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, 2000.
    92) Lewis RJ: Sax's Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials, 9th ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1996.
    93) Lide DR: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 76th ed, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1995.
    94) Loddenkemper T & Goodkin HP: Treatment of Pediatric Status Epilepticus. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2011; Epub:Epub.
    95) MAPA Professional: Chemical Resistance Guide. MAPA North America. Columbia, TN. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.mapaglove.com/pro/ChemicalSearch.asp. As accessed 4/21/2003.
    96) MAPA Professional: Chemical Resistance Guide. MAPA North America. Columbia, TN. 2004. Available from URL: http://www.mapaglove.com/ProductSearch.cfm?id=1. As accessed 6/10/2004.
    97) Manno EM: New management strategies in the treatment of status epilepticus. Mayo Clin Proc 2003; 78(4):508-518.
    98) Mar-Mac Manufacturing, Inc: Product Literature, Protective Apparel, Mar-Mac Manufacturing, Inc., McBee, SC, 1995.
    99) Marigold Industrial: US Chemical Resistance Chart, on-line version. Marigold Industrial. Norcross, GA. 2003. Available from URL: www.marigoldindustrial.com/charts/uschart/uschart.html. As accessed 4/14/2003.
    100) Memphis Glove Company: Permeation Guide. Memphis Glove Company. Memphis, TN. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.memphisglove.com/permeation.html. As accessed 7/2/2001.
    101) Montgomery Safety Products: Montgomery Safety Products Chemical Resistant Glove Guide, Montgomery Safety Products, Canton, OH, 1995.
    102) Murphy JV, Banwell PE, & Roberts AHN: Frostbite: pathogenesis and treatment. J Trauma 2000; 48:171-178.
    103) NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 11th ed, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1997.
    104) NFPA: Fire Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials, 13th ed., National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.
    105) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 1, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2001.
    106) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 2, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2002.
    107) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 3, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2003.
    108) NRC: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals - Volume 4, Subcommittee on Acute Exposure Guideline Levels, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Commission of Life Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 2004.
    109) Naradzay J & Barish RA: Approach to ophthalmologic emergencies. Med Clin North Am 2006; 90(2):305-328.
    110) Nat-Wear: Protective Clothing, Hazards Chart. Nat-Wear. Miora, NY. 2001. Available from URL: http://www.natwear.com/hazchart1.htm. As accessed 7/12/2001.
    111) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    112) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2,4-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    113) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Butylene Oxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648083cdbb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    114) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,2-Dibromoethane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802796db&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.
    115) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d68a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    116) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for 2-Ethylhexyl Chloroformate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037904e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    117) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Acrylonitrile (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648028e6a3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    118) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Adamsite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    119) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Agent BZ (3-quinuclidinyl benzilate) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ad507&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-18.
    120) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Allyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039d9ee&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    121) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    122) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Arsenic Trioxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480220305&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    123) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Automotive Gasoline Unleaded (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cc17&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    124) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Biphenyl (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1b7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    125) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bis-Chloromethyl Ether (BCME) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648022db11&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    126) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Boron Tribromide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae1d3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    127) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromine Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648039732a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    128) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Bromoacetone (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187bf&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    129) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Calcium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    130) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803ae328&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    131) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Carbonyl Sulfide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648037ff26&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    132) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Chlorobenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064803a52bb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    133) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Cyanogen (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809187fe&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    134) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Dimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbf3&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    135) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Diphenylchloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    136) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091884e&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    137) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyl Phosphorodichloridate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480920347&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    138) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethylbenzene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809203e7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    139) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ethyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    140) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Germane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963906&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    141) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Hexafluoropropylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064801ea1f5&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    142) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Ketene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ee7c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    143) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Aluminum Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    144) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Magnesium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    145) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Malathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064809639df&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    146) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Mercury Vapor (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a087&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    147) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Isothiocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a03&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    148) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963a57&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    149) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyl tertiary-butyl ether (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064802a4985&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    150) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methylchlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5f4&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    151) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    152) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Methyldichlorosilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c646&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    153) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN1 CAS Reg. No. 538-07-8) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006a. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    154) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN2 CAS Reg. No. 51-75-2) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006b. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    155) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Mustard (HN3 CAS Reg. No. 555-77-1) (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6cb&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    156) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Tetroxide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008n. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648091855b&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    157) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Nitrogen Trifluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009l. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    158) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Parathion (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008o. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480963e32&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    159) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perchloryl Fluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e268&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    160) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Perfluoroisobutylene (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    161) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008p. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dd58&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    162) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006d. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020cc0c&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    163) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phenyldichloroarsine (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2007k. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020fd29&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    164) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phorate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008q. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096dcc8&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    165) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene (Draft-Revised). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a8a08a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    166) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Phosgene Oxime (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e26d&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    167) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    168) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Potassium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005c. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    169) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Propargyl Alcohol (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec91&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    170) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Selenium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec55&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    171) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Silane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006g. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d523&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    172) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Cyanide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7cbb9&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-15.
    173) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sodium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    174) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Strontium Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005f. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    175) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Sulfuryl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006h. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020ec7a&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    176) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tear Gas (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008s. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e551&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    177) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tellurium Hexafluoride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7e2a1&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    178) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tert-Octyl Mercaptan (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008r. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5c7&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    179) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Tetramethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-17.
    180) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethoxysilane (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006i. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d632&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    181) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethyl Phosphite (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2009j. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=0900006480a7d608&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    182) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Trimethylacetyl Chloride (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008t. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648096e5cc&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    183) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Zinc Phosphide (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2005e. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020c5ed&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    184) National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for n-Butyl Isocyanate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2008m. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=09000064808f9591&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-12.
    185) National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute: Expert panel report 3: guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. National Heart,Lung,and Blood Institute. Bethesda, MD. 2007. Available from URL: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/asthgdln.pdf.
    186) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health: NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cincinnati, OH, 2007.
    187) National Research Council : Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 5, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2007.
    188) National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 6, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2008.
    189) National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 7, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2009.
    190) National Research Council: Acute exposure guideline levels for selected airborne chemicals, 8, National Academies Press, Washington, DC, 2010.
    191) Neese Industries, Inc.: Fabric Properties Rating Chart. Neese Industries, Inc.. Gonzales, LA. 2003. Available from URL: http://www.neeseind.com/new/TechGroup.asp?Group=Fabric+Properties&Family=Technical. As accessed 4/15/2003.
    192) North: Chemical Resistance Comparison Chart - Protective Footwear . North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.linkpath.com/index2gisufrm.php?t=N-USA1. As accessed April 30, 2004.
    193) North: eZ Guide Interactive Software. North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002a. Available from URL: http://www.northsafety.com/feature1.htm. As accessed 8/31/2002.
    194) Peate WF: Work-related eye injuries and illnesses. Am Fam Physician 2007; 75(7):1017-1022.
    195) Playtex: Fits Tough Jobs Like a Glove, Playtex, Westport, CT, 1995.
    196) Pohanish RP & Greene SA: Rapid Guide to Chemical Incompatibilities, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, NY, 1997.
    197) Pohanish RP: Sittig's Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens, 4th ed, Noyes Publications / William Andrew Publishing, Norwich, NY, 2002.
    198) Product Information: diazepam IM, IV injection, diazepam IM, IV injection. Hospira, Inc (per Manufacturer), Lake Forest, IL, 2008.
    199) Product Information: lorazepam IM, IV injection, lorazepam IM, IV injection. Akorn, Inc, Lake Forest, IL, 2008.
    200) RTECS : Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 2000; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
    201) RTECS: Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances.. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Cincinnati, OH (Internet Version). Edition expires 2003; provided by Truven Health Analytics Inc., Greenwood Village, CO.
    202) River City: Protective Wear Product Literature, River City, Memphis, TN, 1995.
    203) Rodriguez NA & Ascaso FJ: Ocular surface frostbite secondary to ethyl chloride spray. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2012; 31(1):77-80.
    204) Safety 4: North Safety Products: Chemical Protection Guide. North Safety. Cranston, RI. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.safety4.com/guide/set_guide.htm. As accessed 8/14/2002.
    205) Scott R, Besag FMC, & Neville BGR: Buccal midazolam and rectal diazepam for treatment of prolonged seizures in childhood and adolescence: a randomized trial. Lancet 1999; 353:623-626.
    206) Servus: Norcross Safety Products, Servus Rubber, Servus, Rock Island, IL, 1995.
    207) Shirokov OM: Gig Sanit 1976; 7:107-108.
    208) Sittig M: Handbook of Toxic and Hazardous Chemicals and Carcinogens, 3rd ed, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1991.
    209) Soult TA & Walker JS: Ethyl chloride intoxication. Am J Emerg Med 1993; 11:313-315.
    210) Sreenath TG, Gupta P, Sharma KK, et al: Lorazepam versus diazepam-phenytoin combination in the treatment of convulsive status epilepticus in children: A randomized controlled trial. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2009; Epub:Epub.
    211) Standard Safety Equipment: Product Literature, Standard Safety Equipment, McHenry, IL, 1995.
    212) Tingley: Chemical Degradation for Footwear and Clothing. Tingley. South Plainfield, NJ. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.tingleyrubber.com/tingley/Guide_ChemDeg.pdf. As accessed 10/16/2002.
    213) Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.: Chemical and Biological Tests (database). Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.. Portsmouth, NH. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.trelleborg.com/protective/. As accessed 10/18/2002.
    214) Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.: Trellchem Chemical Protective Suits, Interactive manual & Chemical Database. Trelleborg-Viking, Inc.. Portsmouth, NH. 2001.
    215) Tu AS: Cancer Lett 1985; 28:85-92.
    216) U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management: Protective Action Criteria (PAC) with AEGLs, ERPGs, & TEELs: Rev. 26 for chemicals of concern. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Emergency Management. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.hss.doe.gov/HealthSafety/WSHP/Chem_Safety/teel.html. As accessed 2011-06-27.
    217) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Project : 11th Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program. Washington, DC. 2005. Available from URL: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/INDEXA5E1.HTM?objectid=32BA9724-F1F6-975E-7FCE50709CB4C932. As accessed 2011-06-27.
    218) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Discarded commercial chemical products, off-specification species, container residues, and spill residues thereof. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities 2010b; 40CFR(261.33, e-f):77-.
    219) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2011. Available from URL: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/index.cfm?fuseaction=iris.showSubstanceList&list_type=date. As accessed 2011-06-21.
    220) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of Radionuclides. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010a. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.
    221) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: List of hazardous substances and reportable quantities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-sec302-4.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.
    222) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: The list of extremely hazardous substances and their threshold planning quantities (CAS Number Order). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2010c. Available from URL: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2010-title40-vol27/pdf/CFR-2010-title40-vol27-part355.pdf. As accessed 2011-06-17.
    223) U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration: Part 1910 - Occupational safety and health standards (continued) Occupational Safety, and Health Administration's (OSHA) list of highly hazardous chemicals, toxics and reactives. Subpart Z - toxic and hazardous substances. CFR 2010 2010; Vol6(SEC1910):7-.
    224) U.S. Occupational Safety, and Health Administration (OSHA): Process safety management of highly hazardous chemicals. 29 CFR 2010 2010; 29(1910.119):348-.
    225) United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics: Acute Exposure Guideline Levels (AEGLs) for Vinyl Acetate (Proposed). United States Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, DC. 2006. Available from URL: http://www.regulations.gov/search/Regs/contentStreamer?objectId=090000648020d6af&disposition=attachment&contentType=pdf. As accessed 2010-08-16.
    226) Verschueren K: Handbook of Environmental Data on Organic Chemicals, 2nd ed, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, New York, NY, 1983.
    227) Wells Lamont Industrial: Chemical Resistant Glove Application Chart. Wells Lamont Industrial. Morton Grove, IL. 2002. Available from URL: http://www.wellslamontindustry.com. As accessed 10/31/2002.
    228) Workrite: Chemical Splash Protection Garments, Technical Data and Application Guide, W.L. Gore Material Chemical Resistance Guide, Workrite, Oxnard, CA, 1997.
    229) Yacoub I, Robinson CA, & Simmons GT: Death attributed to ethyl chloride. J Anal Toxicol 1993a; 17:384-385.
    230) Yacoub I, Robinson CA, Simmons GT, et al: Death attributed to ethyl chloride. J Anal Toxicol 1993; 17:384-385.